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Eastwood Wire Manufacturing Co. 

BELLEVILLE, N. J. 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Fourdrinier "Wires 

WITH PATENT SAFETY EDGE. 

IMPROVED PATENT DANDY. 




Patented August 1?, ISivi. 

BRASS, COPPER and IRON WIRE CLOTH of Every Description, 

Send for Samples and Prices. 

IMPORTANT TO STEAM USERS. 



.^^ ti^e^^tzse: o int 



Steam Boiler Incrustation 

and Methods for Preventing Corrosion and 
the Formation of Scale, 

Including Methods for Determining the Constituents and a Description of Dr. Clark's Soap Test for Determining 
the Degree of Hardness of Wat&r ; the Effects of Rain, River, Well and Sea Waters on Steam toilers; Com- 
pounds and Apparatus for Purifying, Softening, Heating, Filtering, Spraying' anH '-^poarating Foreign M.itier 
from Mine, River, Well and other Waters ; Apparatus for Feeding Chemicals with the Water tu Steam 
Boilers, and for Economizing in the Quantity of Water Consumed for Generating Steam in Places 
Where the Supply of Water is Limited ; Devices for removing the Mud and Sediment and for 
Blowing off the Less Crystalline Substances and Salt from Steam Boilers ; Licluding also a 
Description of Compounds for Softening Incrustations and Methods Claimed as Prevent- 
ives to the Incrustation and Corrosion of Land and Marine Steam Boilers : also a 
Complete List of all American Patents Issued by the Government of the Laiited 
States from 1790 to July i, 1884, for Compounds and Mechanical Devices 
for Purifying Water and for Preventing the Incrustation of Steam Boilers. 

By CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS. 

Illustrated by Sixty-five Enyraoinys. In one Voltniie. 8vo. 141 Pages, Price. $2,0 



'The above 07- any of our books sent by mail, fre; of postage, at the publication price, to 
any address in the world. 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

Industrial PiiblisJierSf JiooTcsellers and Importers, 

810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A. 



1^1 



(p^n 



THE 



MANUFACTURE OF PAPER: 



BEING A 



DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR THE FABRICATION, 
COLORING, AND FINISHING OF EVERY KIND OF PAPER; 

IJfCLUDING THE 

DIFFERENT EAW MATERIALS AND THE METHODS FOE DETERMINING 

THEIR VALUES; THE TOOLS, MACHINES, AND PRACTICAL DETAILS 

CONNECTED WITH AN INTELLIGENT AND A PROFITABLE 

PROSECUTION OF THE ART, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE 

TO THE BEST AMERICAN PRACTICE. 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED 

A HISTORY OF PAPER, COMPLETE LISTS OF PAPER-MAKIXG MATERIALS, 
LISTS OF AMERICAN MACHINES, TOOLS, AND PROCESSES USED IN 
TREATING THE RAW MATERIALS, AND IN MAKING, 
_^ COLORING, AND FINISHING PAPER. 

• ..'• 



BY 

CHAELES THOMAS DAVIS, 

AUTHOR OF THE " MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER," " A PRACTICAL TREATISE OX THE 
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS, TILES, AND TEKRA-COTTA," ETC. ETC. 



ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS. 




PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 
No. 810 WALNUT STREET. 

LOXDOIT : 

SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, 
CROWN BUILDINGS, 1S3 FLEET STREET. 

1886. 



C0LLIN8 pRiNTisa House, 
705 Jayne Street. 



Copyright by 
CHARLES THOAIAS DAVIS, 

1886. 



Copyright by 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO. 

1886. 



Oil ■ 



1^'j 






PREFACE. 



To tell the story of the manufacture of paper and describe con- 
cisely the processes employed in the various stages of paper- 
making, and give an account of all the known substances that 
have ever been used for the purposes for which we employ paper 
is by no means an easy task. At the present time, when books, 
newspapers, and other' periodicals are issued to the world in 
numbers almost beyond calculation, certainly no apology is due 
for a dissertation on the manufacture of paper, on the score of 
the lack of importance of that article. 

The remarkable advance which has been made in the United 
States in all classes of manufactures during the past twenty years 
has excited alike the admiration and the envy of the civilized 
w^orld, but in no industry has greater progress been made than in 
the fabrication of paper. The great ingenuity and intelligence 
of our people, coupled with an abundance of all the raw materials 
used in paper-making, have aided in developing that industry in 
this country to proportions entirely unknown in any other country 
on the globe. 

It was the writer's first intention to have devoted the book 
eutirely to a description of the " practical'' processes employed 



IV PREFACE. 

in paper-making in various parts of the world ; and to this eud 
he collected in the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, 
and Great Britain a large amount of so-called "practical infor- 
mation," But upon a reconsideration of the subject, and by 
the advice of some of the leading paper-makers in the United 
States and in Europe, he decided that the publication of such 
information would prove of little value to the paper trade, for the 
reason that paper-makers in the United States have little to learn 
from the paper manufacturers of Europe. The machinery and 
processes in use in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe 
are far behind those emplo3^ed in the United States, consequently 
the author determined that the book should be confined almost 
exclusively to a description of the machines and processes em- 
ployed in the leading mills of this country. In order that such 
descriptions should not be too meagre the size of the volume has 
been materially enlarged over that at first contemplated. If 
American readers of the present volume complain that the author 
has described at length processes and machines which are already 
familiar to them through trade publications or otherwise, they 
should remember that such inventions are probably not so fami- 
liar to those engaged in paper-making in foreign countries whence 
a considerable proportion of the present edition of this book 
will go. 

On account of the importance of the acid or bisulphite pro- 
cesses for making pulp from wood, etc., the author has given 
considerable space to a description of such processes, and while 
he thinks the apparatus employed in working these processes is 
much too cumbersome and expensive for general use, he could 



PREFACE. V 

not on that account orait a description of them ; nor should he 
be held accountable for the defects in such processes, the aim in 
view being to present a description of the state of the art as it 
exists at the present time. 

It would, of course, be impossible, in a book the size of 
the present one, to describe all the processes and machines 
which, have been invented and used in paper-making in the 
United States ; but the lists of patents which this volume con- 
tains give reference to the number and date of nearly all the 
inventions which have been patented in the United States since 
the year 1790 to the end of the year 1885, and copies of all 
patents issued subsequent to the year 1866 can be obtained, upon 
application to the Commissioner of Patents, at a cost of twenty- 
five cents each. Patents issued prior to the year 1866 require to 
be copied in manuscript, and the cost of such copies depends upon 
the number of words contained in the patent. 

CHAELES T. DAYIS. 

AYashington, D. C, 
1114 Pennsylvania Ave,, July 1, 1886. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

The History of the Manufacture of Paper. 

PAGE 

Alliance between the manufacture of paper and progress in civilization . 1 7 

Materials belonging to the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms used 
for records of human intelligence . . . . . . . .18 

Cla,y and Terra-cotta used for bank notes, public records, etc., in Nineveh 
and Babylon; Histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria found on 
clay tablets . . . . . . . . . . . .19 

Terra-cotta tablets in the British Museum ; The history of Creation and of 
the Flood found on terra-cotta tablets ....... 20 

Egyptian papyi-i in the British Museum ; Description of tlie three forms of 
writing used by the Egyptians, Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and the Demotic 21 

Characteristic differences of the works written with Hieratic and Demotic 
characters . . . . . . . . . . . .22 

Form and size of the Egyptian papyri ; Depositories of cylindrical rolls of 
papyrus ; Introduction of papyrus among the Western nations aided by 
Alexander ; Description of papyi'us ....... 23 

Papyrus superseded by cotton paper ; Leather used by the Israelites ; 
Probable invention of parchment ; Manufacture and present use of parch- 
ment ............. 24 

Chinese use of the inner bark of the bamboo ; Origin of the word paper ; 
Modern materials used in the manufacture of paper; Other uses for 
paper than as a printing and writing material ..... 25 

Uncertainty of the precise time of the introduction of modern paper ; 
Kewards offered by M. Miserman and the Royal Society of Sciences 
at Gottingen for oldest manuscripts written upon rag paper; Tract of 
Peter, Abbot of Cluny, A. D., 1122-50, giving the first mention of 
rag paper ............ 26 

Paper from fibrous materials and cotton-wool made by the Chinese, in A. D. 
152; Cotton paper and its manufacture made known to the AVestern 
world by the Arabs ; Materials used by the Chinese in manufacture of 
paper . . . . . . . . , . . . .27 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Various titles applied to cotton paper in the Middle Ages; Early use of 
cotton paper by the Arabians ; Remarks upon the existing samples of 
cotton-paper MSS. written in European cotintries . .... 28 

Copies of statutes left by Empress Irene, in the eleventh or twelfth cen- 
tury; Use of paper among the Greeks; The oldest European documents 
on cotton paper ; Arabians introduce paper into Spain, in 704 . . 29 

Valencia, Xativa, and Toledo, the primitive seats of cotton-paper industry 
in Europe; Introduction by the Crusaders, in 1189, of manufacture of 
cotton paper into France; Rapid development of the paper trade in 
France in the fourteenth century ........ 30 

Superiority, during a long period, of French and Dutch papers ; Manufac- 
ture of paper in England ; First English paper patent .... 31 

]\Ianufacturc of paper in Italy after the fall of the INIoorish power in Spain ; 

Establishment of paper-mills in Germany ...... 32 

Arabians, in Spain, the first to mix rags with cotton pulp ; First manufac- 
ture of linen paper in Europe ; Discussion by James Yates as to the 
period and manner of the invention of linen paper .... 33 

Specimens of linen paper described by Gotthelf Fischer, and by Schwand- 



34 



Uncertainty of the circumstances which led to the invention of linen paper; 
Remark by the Arabian physician, AbdoUatiph, upon the sale of cloth 
found in the catacombs . . . . • . . . .35 

Abundant testimony that Egypt supplied all Europe with papyrus until 
near the close of the eleventh century ; Introduction of cotton paper into 
Europe in the eleventh century . . . . . . . .36 

Superior facilities of the Egyptians for improvement in manufacture of 
paper; Extract from Petrus Cluniacensis . . . . . .37 

Linen paper proved to be an Eastern invention, and first introduced into 
Europe by the Saracens of Spain ; Papers with and without water-marks 39 

Varieties of paper and water-marks serve as a guide to approximating the 
periods of undated documents ; Peculiarities of rag paper at diflierent 
periods of its manufacture ......... 40 

Paper mills in Europe, in January, 1886 ; Enumeration of the countries in 
Europe according to their relative importance in paper manufacture ; 
Modern pajsei'-mills in Japan, India, and Australia .... 41 

Comparative production of paper in Canada, South America, Cuba, and 
Mexico ; United States the greatest paper manufacturing country in the 
world ; Manufacture of paper in England ...... 42 

Progress of j^nper manufacture impeded in the United States by industrial 
depressions, arising from financial complications ; First paper-mill in the 
American Colonies established by the efforts of "William Bradford, one 
of the earliest printers 43 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

First paper-mill in the Colonies built by William Rlttenhiiysen (William 
Rittenhouse) on Paper Mill Run, near Philadelphia ; Ivy Mill, in Dela- 
ware County, Pa., built by Thomas Willcox, in 1727 ; Paper-mills in 
Massachusetts under an exclusive patent, in 1728 ..... 44 

Difficulty of procuring suitable workmen causes the stoppage of the mill . 45 

Paper-mill in Connecticut established by a State bounty in 17G8 ; Paper- 
mills in America at the commencement of the Revolution . . .46 

Invention of making paper of large size, by N. L. Robert, of Essonnes, 
France ; French bounty to aid the inventor ; Transfer of the machine to 
England 47 

English patent to John Gamble for. improvement of Robert's machine; 
Patent to Henry Fourdrinier for manufacturing paper of an indefinite 
length 48 

History of the Fourdrinier machine ; Paper-mills in the United States in 

1810 . . .49 

Value of paper produced in the United States in 1810; Importation of 
rags, from Europe ; Development of American industry by the War of 
1812; American patent system; Destruction of Patent-office by fire in 
1836 50 

American patents for manufacture of paper; John Dickinson's invention 
patented in England, in 1809 ; Mr. Canson's improvement of the Four- 
drinier machine, in 1826 . . . • . . . . .51 

U. S. patent to Thomas Gilpin, of Philadelphia, for paper-making machine, 
in 1816 ; Thomas Gilpin's mills on the Brandywine for the manufacture of 
wool, cotton, and paper ; Disastrous results to wool and cotton manufac- 
tures by English competition after the close of the Avar . . . .52 

Paper cut from a continuous sheet sent by Thos. Gilpin to Philadelphia ; 
Poulson's "Daily Advertiser" the first publication printed upon it ; M. 
Carey & Son's Historical Atlas of l^avoisne, printed on paper made by 
T. Gilpin, in 1821. . 53 

Loss of Thomas Giljjin's mills by a flood, in 1822 ; Destruction of the paper 
industry in Pennsylvania and Delaware by heavy importations of paper 
for want of proper protection; Tariff Act of April 26, 1816 ; Congres- 
sional use of paper imported from England and France .... 54 

List of patents for paper manufacture issued by the United States, from 
1820 to 1830 55 

Encouragement to cylinder machines of American invention after 1822 ; 
Value of the machinery and paper-mill projDerty stated at the convention 
of paper-makers, in 1842 . . . . . . . . .56 

Keller's invention for grinding wood for manufticture of pulp ; Henry 
Voelter's improvement of the pulp-machine, patented in the United 
States ; Prejudice against wood-paper overcome by stratagem in Boston , 57 

Superiority of wood-paper for rapid printing ...... 58 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Great improvements in manufacture of paper since I860 .... 59 

Comparison of decades 1830-1840 and 1840-1850; Advance in price of 
paper between 1850-1855 60 

Census returns of 1860 of paper-making; Paper as a substitute for cotton 
after the outbreak of the Civil War; Prices of paper in 18G2 . . 61 

Decline in price of paper after 1865 ; Introduction of wood-pulp and large 
consumption of straw for newspaper ; New materials for manufacture of 
Manilla paper ; Large number of patents issued for paper-making from 
1865 to 1885 ; Cheapening of paper production from 1870 to 1885 . . 62 

CHAPTER II. 

Materials used for Paper — Micrographical Study of the Manu- 
facture OF Paper — Cellulose — Determination of Cellulose — 
Recognition of Vegetable Fibres. 

Materials used for paper . . . . . . . . . .64 

Micrographic study of the manufacture of paper ; Necessary qualities of 
fibres for paper-making ; Five classes of paper-making substances ; Cellu- 
lose an especially characteristic product of the vegetable kingdom . . 77 
Hydrocellulose and oxycellulose, with their chemical characteristics . . 78 
Determination of cellulose ; Miiller's processes for . . . . .79 

Improvement by Bevan and Cross upon Miiller's processes ... 80 

Recognition of vegetable fibres ; Filaments of cotton as shown by the micro- 
scope ; Distinguishing feature of cotton filament from all other vegetable 
fibres ............. 81 

Linen or flax fibre as seen under the microscope ; Effects of caustic potash 
upon linen and cotton fibres ; Effects produced upon linen and cotton 
fibres and tissues by their immersion in oil . . . . . .82 

Distinguishing properties of New Zealand flax, hemp-fibre, sizal, and jute 

fibres 83, 

Examining fibres under the microscope . . . . . . .84 

CHAPTER IIL 

Commercial Classifications of Papers-Sizes of Paper — Commercial 
Classifications of Paper-Making Materials. 

Classifications of papers and boards in the markets of the United States . 85 

Sizes of papers ; News ; Machine finished book, white and toned . . 86 
Sized super calendered book, white and toned ; Colored cover papers ; Mii- 

nillas ; Flat writings ; " Linen" bank-ledger papers .... 87 
Commercial classifications of paper-making materials ; Rags ; Classifications 

of rags as quoted in the markets of the United States and Great Britain . 88 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

Classifications of rope, bagging and threads, shavings and old papers . . 90 
Classifications of fibres, coir goods, gutta-percha. India-rubber, wastes, and 

"wood-pulps ............ 91 

Classifications of straw-pulp and Esparto grass ; List of chemicals, clays, 

minerals, rosins, etc., employed in paper-making . . ... .92 

List of aniline dyes . . . . . , . . . , .93 



CHAPTER IV. 

Manufacture of Paper by Hand. 

Condition of paper-making at the beginning of the present century ; Use 

of hand-made writing paper in Europe ....... 94 

Moulding of paper by hand ......... 95 

Taking the paper from the mould, draining, sizing, and drying ... 96 
Illustration of process for making paper by hand . . . . .97 

Water-mark in hand-made papers ; Production of hand-made paper in the 

United States and in Great Britain 98 



CHAPTER V. 
Disinfecting Rags — Purchasing Rags. 

Quarantine regulations for disinfection of rags ; Disinfection with sulphurous 
acid, or by boiling under pressure ........ 99 

Parker's and Blackman's ajiparatus for disinfecting rags and other fibrous 
substances while in the bale, illustrated with detailed description . .100 

Beneficial results claimed by the patentees . . . . . .105 

Purchasing rags ; Frauds'in baling of rags ; City and country rags ; Detec- 
tion of moisture in rags ......... 107 

Detection of jute in linen ; Destroying cotton in linen by use of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid. . . . . . . . . . .108 

CHAPTER VI. 

Sorting Rags — Sorting Waste Paper — Sorting or "Dry-Picking" 
Esparto — Machine for Facilitating the Sorting of Paper Stock. 

Cleaning the dust, sand, and other matters from the rags before sorting ; 
Sorting according to fibre and color . . . . . . .109 

Classification of rags according to fibre and color 5 Sorting waste paper . 110 
Duty of sorters ; Testing of waste paper . . . . . . .111 



XU CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Sorting or "dry-picking" Esparto ; Dry-picking a term used in contradis- 
tinction to wet-picking . . . . . . . , . .112 

Machine for facilitating the sorting of paper stock ; Apparatus of Robert 
and Walter Moorhouse, Philadelphia, illustrated with detailed de- 
scription . . . . . . .. . . . .113 

CHAPTER VII. 

Cutting Rags by Hand — Cutting Rags by Machinery — List of Pat- 
ents FOR Rag Cutters and Dusters — Cutting Wood for Chemical 
Fibre — Treating Wood before Grinding — Voelter's Machine for 
Cutting or Grinding Wood — List of Patents for Wood-Grinders 
— Corn-Husk Cutter. 

Cutting rags by hand ; Apparatus of Edgar D. Aldrich, of Pittafield, Massa- 
chusetts, illustrated with detailed description . . . . .117 

Manner of cutting rugs by hand . . . . . . . .119 

Precautions requisite in manufacture of fine paper . . . . .120 

■Cutting rags by machinery ......... 121 

Taylor's machine for cutting rags, illustrated with detailed desci'iption . 122 
Bauraann's rag-cutting machine, illustrated with detailed description . .130 
Coburn's machine for cutting rags, etc., or materials containing metallic and 

other substances, illustrated with detaih'd description . . . .133 

Taylor's machine for separating metallic substances from paper stock, illus- 
trated with detailed description . . . . . . . .139 

Otlwr rag-cutting machines . . . . . . . . .142 

Sizes of the cut rags ; List of patents for rag-cutters and dusters issued by 
the government of the United States of America from 1790 to 1885 in- 
clusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 

Straw-cutters; Treatment of the straw ....... 144 

Cutting wood for chemical fibre ; Treating wood before grinding . . 145 
Process of George F. Cushman, of Burnet, Vermont, for disintegration of 
wood fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

Voelter's machine for cutting or grinding wood and reducing it to pulp ; 

Condition of wood grinding prior to Voelter's invention . . . 148 

Illustration and detailed description of Voelter's apparatus . . . 150 
Operation of Voelter's machine ........ 158 

Nature, etc., of the pulp produced by Voelter's method; illustration and 

detailed description of a plant for producing pulp by the Voelter process 164 
List of patents for wood grinders issued by the Government of the United 

States, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive 166 

Corn husk cutter ; Apparatus of William A. AVright, illustrated with de- 
tailed description . . . . . . . . . .171 



CONTENTS. XUl 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Dusting Rags — Wet Dusting — Waste-Paper Duster and AVasher. - 

PAGE 

Dusting rags ; The operation as generally performed . . . .175 

Dusters consisting of a revolving drum with loose or swinging arms ; De- 
scription of rag dusting machines in use in England, Belgium, and other 
parts of the Continent and in the United States ; Combination of the 
"devil" and duster . . . . . . . . . .176 

The waste from dusting, etc. ; Mean waste in the dusting, according to 
Prouteaux ; Waste of rags from moisture, overhauling, cutting, and dust- 
ing 178 

A machine for reducing the loss in cleaning cut rags ; Apparatus of J. B. 

Hart and Emory H. Walker, illustrated with detailed description . .179 

AVet dusting ; Combined washing or cleansing and boiling process ; Appa- 
ratus of AV. E. Newton, illustrated with detailed description . . .185 

AVaste-paper duster and washer ; Apparatus of Hiram Allen and Lyman 
S. Mason, illustrated with detailed description . . • . .189 

Combination of an automatic transferring device, with the dusting engine 
and pulping vat to avoid having a large pile of loose dry paper in the 
mill 193 

Elevator for transferring loose papers into the circuit vat . . . .194 

Temperature of the water in the pulping vat ; Use of solvent for dissolution 
of ink when printed pajjers are used . . . . . , .195 

Transforming printed papers into clean, refined, and bleached pulp . .196 

Preferable arrangement of the dusting engine with the pulping and wash- 
ing vats ; Arrangement for tearing apart folded papers, pamphlets, etc., 
sorting and freeing from dust . . . . . . . .197 

Illustration and detailed description of the machinery . . . .198 

List of American patents for rag dusters ....... 202 

CHAPTER IX. 

Boiling Rags — Stationary Boilers — Revolving Boilers — Treating 
Colored Rags — Boiling Waste Paper — Boiling Straw — Boiling 
Esparto — Boiling Manilla and Jute — Boiling AA''ood — Soda Re- 
covery — Acid or Bisulphite Processes of Treating Wood^^List 
of Patents for Preparing Cellulose from AVood by the Acid or 
Bisulphite Processes — List of Patents for Digesters with Lead 
Linings — List of all American Patents for Digesters for Paper 
Pulp — Methods other than the Mechanical, Soda, and Bisulphite 
Processes for the Treatment of Wood. 

Boiling rags ; Importance of intelligent care in boiling .... 203 
Objects to be gained by boiling ; Alkaline substances employed in boiling; 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chemical substances; Illustration of spherical boiler used in Europe and 

in the United States 204 

Use of lime and soda in boilinor i-ags ....... 205 

Solvent properties of water ; Pressure of steam for boiling rags ; Mixture of 
lime and soda ash .......... 206 

Proportions of lime and soda used in Europe for boiling the various stuffs ; 

Preparation of the milk of lime ........ 207 

Introduction of soda-ash into the boiler ; Caustic soda employed in boiling 
the different classes of rags ......... 208 

Stationary boilers ; Illustration and description of a stationary boiler much 

used in Great Britain . 209 

Revolving boilers . . . . . . . . . . .210 

Boiler of George F. Wilson, illustrated with detailed description . .211 
Improved strainer for the blow-off of paper stock boilers ; Illustration of an 
ordinary rotary boiler, with detailed description . . . . .215 

Strainer invented by Benjamin F. Mullen, illustrated with detailed descrip- 
tion 217 

Treating colored rags ; Course practically pursued by paper manufacturers 
in preparing their paper stock ; Patented process of George F. AVilson 
and Philip O'lleilley, with illustration of apparatus and detailed descrip- 
tion 219 

Operation of preparing the stock ........ 221 

Use of permanganate of potash, and of the soluble salt of manganese . 223 

Boiling waste paper ; Extraction of writing ink ; Tubs used for boiling 
waste paper ............ 224 

Proper mode of conducting the boiling operation ; Distribution of the soda- 
ash solution ; Covering the iron tubs with wood or asbestos to prevent 
the escape of heat ; Treatment of the liquor after each boiling . . 225 
Profitable use of waste steam from the engine ; Properties of the latent 
heat of steam ; Distillation in vacuo at a low temperature effects no saving 
in fuel ; Treating waste paper so as to make paper entirely therefrom . 226 
Process patented by J. T. Ryan ........ 227 

Other methods of treating waste papers ....... 228 

Boiling straw ; Mellier's process for treating straw ..... 229 

Burns' s process for treating straw ; Illustrations and detailed description of 
Burns's vessel for boiling the straw ; Disintegrating machine, and station- 
ary grinding disk. .......... 231 

Boiling coal tar with the alkalies employed in treating straw . . .235 
Other methods of treating straw ; Treatment of corn leaves and stalks of 
oat, barley, wheat, and rye straw . . . . . . . .236 

Boiling esparto . 237 

Statement showing the amount of caustic soda for boiling different varieties 
of esparto ............ 238 



CONTENTS. XV 

PAGE 

Boiling Manilla and j lite ......... 239 

Conley's process foi- boiling and bleaching jute ; Preparatory operations . 240 
Equivalents for standards of caustic alkali ; Two points of prime import- 
ance in this process ; Advantages claimed for this process . . . 241 
Other experiments in using jute in the manufacture of so-called white paper ; 
Boiling wood ; Chemically prepared wood-pulp ; Process of Sinclair and 

of Houghton 242 

DitRculties encountered in boiling chipped wood with caustic soda at a high 
temjDerature ; Use of bisulphite of lime, and of bisulphite of magnesia to 
prevent oxidation and weakening of the fibres ..... 243 

Process patented by Dr. Mitscherlich, of Prussia, of preparing cellulose 
from wood ............ 244 

Difficulty caused by the use of bisulphite ; Plan joroposed by Eitter and 
Kellner to overcome ... ... . . . . . 245 

Objection to the cellulose obtained from wood by the acid processes ; Pure 
cellulose only obtained by exhaustion in an alkaline solution subsequent 
to the acid treatment ; Woods commonly used in the manufacture of 
"chemical wood-pulp;" Boiling with soda; Description of apparatus 
for cutting wood into chips ......... 246 

Dahl's process of producing cellulose from wood, straw, esparto, or other 
vegetable matters, by boiling them under pressure in a hydrated solution 
containing sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, soda hj-drate, and sodium 

sulphide 249 

Defects of boilers for digesting wood by the soda process .... 252 

Marshall's boiler for digesting wood by the soda pi'ocess ; Illustrated with 
detailed description .......... 254 

Soda recovery ; Illustration of a Porrion, evaporating, and incinerating oven 

with detailed description 258 

Acid or bisulphide process of treating wood; Graham's method of treating 
wood and other fibrous substances for the production of fibre, for paper- 
making, etc., by the injection of sulphurous acid, either alone or in com- 
bination with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base in the 
form of a solution containing an excess of acid, into a closed or open 
vessel, or digester, during the operation of boiling. .... 260 

Mitscherlich' s processes of preparing cellulose from wood .... 263 

Illustration and detailed description of Dr. Mitscherlich's apparatus . . 264 

Operation of Dr. Mitscherlich's apparatus . . . . . .271 

Francke's process of manufacturing paper-pulp from Avood, esparto, straw, 

etc .274 

Francke's apparatus illustrated with detailed description . . . .277 

Operation of Francke's apparatus ........ 285 

Some of the defects of the acid or bisulphide process of treating wood . 289 
PIctet and Brelaz's process of treating wood for conversion into paper-pulp, 
which consists in first subjecting the same to the action of a vacuum and 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

to that of a sursatiirated solution of sulphurous acid at a temperature not 
exceeding 212° F. . . . . . ... . . . 290 

Marshall's boiler for treating wood for paper-pulp by the acid or bisulphide 
processes, illustrated with detailed description ..... 292 

List of patents for preparing cellulose from wood by acid or bisulphide pro- 
cesses issued by the Government of the United States from 1790 to 1885 
inclusive ; List of patents for digesters with lead linings to be used in the 
preparation of cellulose, issued by the Government of the United States 
from 1790 to 1885 inclusive 295 

List of all patents for digesters for paper-pulp, issued by the Government 
of the United States, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive . . ' . . . 296 

Methods other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite processes for the 
treatment of wood ; Aussedat's process of treating wood ; Description of 
the apparatus ........... 299 

Machine for crushing wood invented and patented in France by Iwan 

Koechlin 302 

Description of the mills used in France by Mr. Aussedat . . . . 303 

Eesults from experiments made at the Onnonay Laboratory with steam ; 
Experiments made to bleach the more or less reddish pulp with hydro- 
chloric or azotic acids, and by fermentation of beer yeast . . . 304 

Bachet-Machard process of disintegrating wood ..... 305 

Eesults from the Bachet-Machard method ...... 306 

Percentage yield of pulp from esparto, and straw, and pine wood ; Classi- 
fication of the succedaneous pulps ; Treating wood with aqua regia ; 
Treating wood with ammonia, etc. . . . . . . .307 



CHAPTER X. 

Washing Rags — Washing Waste Paper or " Imperfections" — Wash- 
ing Straw — Washing Wood-Pulp — Washing and Pouching Esparto 
— Wash- Water — List of Patents for Pulp-AVashing and Straining. 

Washing rags; Tlie Hollander rag engine ...... 309 

Illustration and detailed description of the principal parts of the rag engine 
used in the United States . . . . . . . . .310 

Approximate waste from washing, boiling, and reduction of the rags to half- 
stuff 316 

Washing waste paper or " imjierfectlons" ; Stock designated as "imperfec- 
tions" . 317 

Difficult}' experienced in re-pulping clippings and scraps of paper . .319 
Process of Cliarles Coon for repulping papei'-stock ..... 320 

Ordinary method of bleaching , . . . . . . .322 

Washing straw 323 



CONTENTS. XVll 

PAGE 

Washing wood-pulp ; Treatment of mechanically-prepared and of chemically- 
prepared wood-pulp . . . . . , . . . .324 

Washing and "pouching" esparto ........ 325 

Description of the poacher or " potching engine" . . . . . 326 

List of American patents for washing engines ; Wash water . . .327 

Composition and characteristics of pure water . . . . .328 

Constituents of rain water and of spring water ..... 329 

Constituents of river water ; Dr. Clark's soap test for hai-dness of water . 330 
Determination of constituents and hardness of water; Qualitative examina- 
tion of water as to its admixtures ........ 331 

Danger of using apparatus containing chemical tests without a proper 
knowledge of chemistry ......... 332 

A determination of hardness with alcoholic soap solution serves in most cases 
as a substitute for a quantitative analysis ; Distinction between ' ' total 
hardness," "permanent hardness," and "temporary hardness" . . 333 
Standard soap solution ; Standard calcic chloride solution . . . 334 

Clark's table of hardness ; Table of hardness in parts per 100,000 . . 335 
Conversion of English degrees of hardness into German, and vice versa ; 

Purification of water to be used in making best qualities of paper . .33 7 

List of patents for pulp washing and straining issued by the government of 
the United States, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive . . . . . 338 



CHAPTER XL 

Bleaching Powder — Estijmation of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder 
— Preparing and Using the Bleaching Solution — Zinc Bleach 
Liquor- — Alumina Bleach Liquor — Draining— Sour Bleaching — 
Bleaching with Gas — Bleaching Pulp made from old Papers or 
Imperfections — Bleaching Straw — Bleaching Wood Fibre — 
Method for Bleaching Wood, Straw, etc. — Bleaching Jute — 
Bleaching of Materials composed of Hemp, Flax, etc. — Bleaching 
Vegetable Tissues with Permanganate of Potash— Bleaching 
Paper Pulp by applying the Bleaching Agent in a Sprayed Con- 
dition — Bleaching in Rotaries — List of Patents for Bleaching 
Pulp. 

Bleaching powder ; Chemical constitution as given by different authorities 341 

342 
343 
344 
345 
346 
347 



Chemical annotations upon bleaching powder . 
Precautions necessary in using bleaching powder 
Decomposition of bleaching powder .... 

Pattinson's statement of loss of strength of bleaching powder 
Estimation of chlorine in bleaching powder 
Preparation of a solution of bleaching jiowder to be tested 
B 



XVlll • CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Penot's method of testing the solution of bleaching powder; Preparation of 
the iodide of potassium stai'ch paper ; Preparation of the solution of 
arsenious acid ; Quantity of arsenious acid as given by Penot and by 
Fresenius ............ 348 

Process of testing . . . . . . . . . . . 349 

Preparing and using the bleaching solution ...... 350 

Zinc bleach liquor . . . . . . . . . . . 352 

Alumina bleach liquor .......... 353 

Draining ............ 354 

Illustration of Samuel Snell's improved tile strainer with description . 355 

Saving the bleach liquor .......... 356 

Sour bleaching . . . . ... . . . . 357 

Bleaching with gas . . . . . . . . . . .358 

Proportions of the ingredients to be used ....... 359 

Bleaching to impart greater brilliancy to the stuff ..... 360 

]51eaching pulp made from old papers or imperfections ; Bleaching straw . 361 
Burns' s bleaching process for straw, etc. . . . . . . .362 

A vertical section of Burns's apparatus for bleaching illustrated with 
detailed description . . . . . . . . . .363 

Bleaching wood fibre ........... 364 

Patented process of Gpldsbury H. Pond ....... 365 

Method for bleaching wood, straw, etc. ; Importance of cleansing stock 
which has been boiled in an alkaline solution, from all traces of alkali 
and glutinous matters before subjecting it to the action of chlorine . . 367 
Important facts connected with bleaching with chlorine . . . .368 

'Treatment of the pulp as it comes from the boilers, as practised In the best 

paper-mills ............ 369 

Common cylinder wet paper machine with improvements, Illustrated with 
detailed description . . . . . . . . . .370 

Advantages claimed for this process over the old methods . . .376 

Bleaching esparto ; Bleaching jute ; Results of investigations by Ci'oss and 

Bevan 377 

Remarkable properties of jute ; Bleaching by means of permanganate of 

potash 378 

Hypochlorites, the only available materials on a commercial scale ; Process 
for treating jute stock, recentl)' jjutented . . . . . .379 

Bleaching of materials composed of hemp, flax, etc. ; Process of Auguste 
Demeurs, of Belgium .......... 380 

Advantages claimed for this process ; Bleaching vegetable tissue with j^er- 
manganate of potash, and neutralizing with oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, 
and chlorine; Process of John A. Southmayd ; The advantages claimed 

for it 382 

Process for bleaching of hard spruce witli modifications for other fibres . 383 



CONTENTS. XIX 

PAGE 

Bleaching paper pulp by applying the bleaching agent in a pulverized or 

sprayed condition ; Process patented by Jean B. Fessy, of France . 385 

J B. Fessy' s apparatus illustrated with detailed descrijjtion . . . 3SG 

Bleaching in rotaries ; Apparatus of Harrison Loring, illustrated with de- 
tailed description ........... 388 

List of patents for bleaching pulp, issued by the government of the United 

States, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive -. 889 



CHAPTER XII. 

Beating — Beating Engines — List of Patents for Pulp Engines 

AND Bedplates. 

Beating ............. 391 

Methods of testing for chlorine . . . . . . . .393 

Theory of the beating process . . . . . . . . .394 

Testing the length of the fibre by the "proof " ..... 395 

It is possible to work a comj)aratively weak material into a reasonably 

strong paper by careful treatment in the beating engine . . .396 

" Antichlorine ;" Its preparation ........ 397 

Hyposulphite of sodium prepared by treating tank waste liquor with sul- 
phurous acid . . . . . . . . . . .398 

Beating engines ; The Kingsland pulp engine, illustrated with detailed de- 
scription ............ 399 

Usual construction of beating engines . ■ . . . . . . 400 

Advantages claimed for the invention of John Hoyt .... 401 

Hoyt's beating engine, illustrated with detailed descrijjtion . . 402 

Operation of the engine .......... 405 

Umpherston's beating engine, illustrated with detailed description . . 406 
Advantages claimed for Umpherston's engine; Other pulp engines ; List 
of i:)atents for pulp engines and bedplates, issued by the United States, 
from 1790 to 1885, inclusive 408 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Sizing — Exgine Sizing — Bleaching Resin and Preparing Size there- 
from — Surface Sizing — Hard Sizing Paper in Process of Manu- 
facture— " Double-Sized" Paper — Tub Sizing with Benzine and 
Resin — Sizing the Surface of Printing Paper — Materials used 
IN Sizing Paper — Waterproof Sizings for Paper. 

Sizing ; Sizing prior to the invention of paper-making machinery ; First 
attempts at sizing pulp in the beating engine . . . . .412 



XX CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Engine sizing; Theory upon which it is based; Substance commonly em- 
ployed ; Preparation of the resin soap ....... 413 

Injurious results from using too small a proportion of water ; Use of a solu- 
tion of soda-ash of greater specific gravity than that of the resin soap . 414 

Proportions of resin to soda-ash ; Proportions of resin, soda-ash, and water 
as recommended by M. d' Arcet ; Present plan of preparing the resin soap 415 

Usual proportion of resin to carbonate of soda ; Treatment of resin soap 
after being boiled ; Importance of running off the mother-liquor contain- 
ing an excess of alkali ; Remedy for imperfect dissolution of the resin ; 
Use of starch-paste for stiffening purposes . . . . . .416 

Proportions of resin soap and starch paste generally used to each" 100 
pounds of dry pulp ; Comparative values of " crystallized" and concen- 
trated alum ; Presence of iron under certain conditions not objectionable 
for ordinary purposes ; Objectionable feature of many of the concentrated 
alums and aluminous cakes . . . . . . . . .417 

Use of acid alums for common papers ; " Lion alum ;" Aluminous cake . 418 

Alum or aluminous cakes desirable for many kinds of colored papers ; Lit- 
mus paper employed to detect surplus of resin soap or sulphates in the 
pulp ; Practical experience always the best guide to determine the pro- 
portion of alum and other chemicals to be used ; Solutions should be 
strained before running them into the engine . . . . .419 

Substitutes for resin in special mills ; Bleaching resin and preparing size 
therefrom ; Thomas Gray's patented process of preparing resin size . 420 

Surface sizing or sizing in the sheet and in the web ; Materials used in 
making animal size .......... 421 

Treatment of the materials ; Converting fat into an insoluble lime soap ; 

Sizing the paper ........... 422 

Necessary precautions in drying the paper ; Preparation of size in large 
paper-mills; Preservation of the glue stock ...... 423 

Objections to glue stock washing apparatus in common use ; Process of 
washing by W. A. Hoeveler's patent washing machine . . . 424 

Best method of drying paper after it is tub-sized; Superiority of "loft 
dried" paper over that dried on the drying machine .... 427 

Hard-sizing paper in process of manufacture by administering vegetable 
and animal sizes successively to the web before It is dried upon tlie 
heated cylinders ; Composition and method of hard sizing paper, pa- 
tented by X. Karcheski ......... 428 

Karcheski's apparatus. Illustrated with detailed description , . .. 430 

"Double-sized" paper .......... 433 

Tub-sizing with benzine and resin ; Sizing the surface of printing paper . 434 

Materials used in sizing paper ; Alum ....... 435 

Testing alum for Iron ; Henry Pemberton's porous alum .... 43G 

Laur's patent for manufacture of alum from bauxite . . . .437 



CONTENTS. 



XXI 



Alumina ; Pearl alum ; Natrona porous alum ; Crystal alum 

Concentrated alum as a water purifier ...... 

False economy in the use of alum ....... 

Aluminium suljjhate ; Donath's test of aluminium sulphate 

Lion alum ; Aluminous cakes ........ 

Ilesins ............ 

Starch; Stock for paper-maker's sizing ...... 

Water- jjroof sizlngs for paper ; Sizing and water- proofing paper with a com- 
pound consisting of water, soda, lime, lard or tallow, glue, bichromate of 
potash, and linseed oil ......... . 

Sizing with 'a composition of soda-ash, carbonate of soda, resin, chloride 
of sodium, linseed oil, and silicate of soda ...... 

Water-proofing building or sheathing paper with a composition consisting of 
resin, parafTine, and silicate of soda ....... 

JNIethod of applying paraffine to paper and strawboard .... 

Process of Warren B. How . 

Treating paper with ozocerite ; Process of Chas. A. Maxfield . 



PAGE 

438 
440 
441 

443 
444 
445 
446 



448 

449 

451 
452 
453 
455 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Coloring. 



Theory of coloring .... 

]jight ; Spectrum ; Primaiy colors . 

Aniline colors ; Binary colors . 

Graduations of colors 

Mordants employed in paper coloring 

Bed shades on paper ; Natural dye stuffs for red colors and shades 

Varieties of red wood ; Red colors for paper ...... 

To produce strong dye liquor from extract of Brazil wood 

Employment of Venetian red for delicate brown colors ; Commercial no- 
menclature of aniline red colors ........ 

Azaleine ; Diamond magenta (Fuchsine) ; Rosaniline colors 

Coralline ; Yellow shades on paper ........ 

Mineral pigments ; Poisonous properties of salts used in coloring yellow 

Aniline yellow ; Blue shades on paper; Prussian or Berlin blue 

Coloring not to be commenced until the sizing is completed ; Surplus of 
alum intensifies the blue color ........ 

Preparation of Prussian or Berlin blue ; Berlin blue used only for low 
grade papers ........... 

Use of ultramarine for coloring fine grades of paper ; Cobalt blue ; Pre- 
paration of sky blue; Aniline colors soluble in water only used by jDaper- 
makers ; Bleu de lumifere ; Bleu de Parme ; Bleu de Lyon . 



457 
458 
459 
460 
462 
464 
465 
466 

467 
468 
469 
470 
471 

472 

473 



474 



XXll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bleu de Paris ; Phenol blue ; Blue rags for dee^D blue colored paper ; Blue- 
ing paper . . . . . . . . . . . .475 

James Hogben's compound for giving the desired tint or color to paper in 
process of manufacture ......... 476 

Green shades on paper . . . . . . . . . .477 

Brown shades on paper . . . . . . ■ . • . . . 478 

Violet shades on paper . . . . . . . . . . 480 

Aniline violet ; Hoffman's violet ; Perkins's violet ..... 481 

Parisian, I'osaniline, and naphthaline violets ; Gray shades on paper . . 482 
Aniline gray ; Black ; Aniline black . ... . . . 483 

Receipt for deep indelible black for paper used in manufacture of cheap 
pocket-books ; Bronze shades on paper ...... 484 

Surface coloring ; Vegetable substances not always desii-able for coloring 
paper ; Stains used for coloring paper after it is manufactured in order to 
prepare it for use in the fabrication of artificial llowers, etc . . . 485 
Stains for glazed papers .......... 487 

Stains for Morocco papers . . . . . . . . .489 

Stains for satin papers . . . . . . . . . .491 



CHAPTER XV. 

Making and Finishing. 

Making and finishing of paper ; Interior view of a machine-room in a 
modern paper-mill containing a Fourdrinier machine .... 495 

Pulp purifying machine illustrated and described ..... 498 

Stuff" regulator for paper-making machines ; Cornelius Young's apparatus 

to regulate the flow of pulp, illustrated with detailed description . . 499 
Automatic wire-guide for paper-making machines ; Apparatus of Thomas 
P. Barry, illustrated with detailed desci-iption ..... 505 

Suction-box for paper-making machines ; Isaac Bratton's improvement in 

connection with suction-boxes, illustrated with detailed description . 514 

Dandy-roll for paper-making machines ; D. McKay's invention illustrated 
with detailed description "... . . . . . .518 

Regulating the speed of the various portions of paper-making machines . 520 
Marshall's improved plan of regulating the speed of paper-making machines, 

illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . .523 

Drying cylinders ..... . . . . . . 532 

Roach's improved pipe-joint, illustrated with detailed description . . 533 
Jaminson's improvement in steam-traps, illustrated with detailed descrip- 
tion ............. 535 

Single cylinder machine .......... 537 



CONTENTS. XXlll 

PAGE 

Calendering; Leading paper ■ tlirougli calender-rolls; Richard Smith's 
jmeumatic guide for leading paper through calender-rolls, illustrated 
■with detailed description ......... 538 

Operation ............ 541 

Cram's entering guide, illustrated with detailed description . . . 543 
Operation ............ 545 

Moistening the paper after leaving the driers before passing through the 
calenders ; Moistening the calender-rolls. Brewer's method; Steam con- 
densing doctor ........... 546 

Frank Brewer's invention for moistening the calender-rolls, illustrated with 
detailed description . . . . . . . . . .547 

Newton's invention for moistening the surface of cylinder rolls, illustrated 
with detailed description . . . . . . . . .549 

Preventing the burning or injury by heating of the paper or material of 
which the calender rolls are composed ; J. H. Frink's invention to prevent 
the paper or material of which the roller is composed from being injured 
by heating, and to keep the journal bearings at as uniform a temperature 
as possible, illustrated with detailed description . . . . .551 

Method for the easy removal and replacement of calender rolls . . . 554 
George E. Marshall's invention of a stack of cylinder rolls, illustrated with 
detailed description .......... 555 

Strijjping sheets of paper from off the last roller of calendering machines ; 
John McLaughlin's invention of independent detachable fingers to strip 
the paper from the last roller, illustrated with detailed description . . 558 
Plate calenders, still used in English and Continental mills . . . 5G0 
Illustration of a plate calender . . . . . . . . .561 

Cutting and rolling the paper : Illustration of paper cutter, with detailed 

description . . . . . . . . . . . .562 

Cutting water-marked paper ; Illustration of a single sheet paper cutter, 
■with detailed description . . . . . . . . . 5G3 

Best style of cutter adapted to cut the sheets directly off the machine . 564 
Process of cutting the paper; Operation of the winder ; J. W. Jolly's 
driver for a paper winder . . . . . . . . .565 

Defects in apparatus in common use for winding the cut- web of paper into 

rolls ; Manning's machine, illustrated with detailed description . . 566 
Dangoise's machine for trimming, slitting, and rolling paper, illustrated with 
detailed description . . , . . . . . . .569 

Finishing paper; Preparation of the paper for the sales counter . . 572 
List of patents relating to paper-making machines issued b}^ the Govern- 
ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive . 573 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

The Preparation of Various Kinds of Paper. 

PAGE 

Asbestos or amianthus paper ; Leading localities for supply of asbestos . 579 
Annual product of asbestos ; average price of asbestos .... 580 

Preparation of carbolic acid paper ; Improved cigarette paper ; Colored 
paper for tying up bottles, etc. ........ 581 

Cork-paper; Electro-chemical telegraph paper; Pouget-Maisonneuve's ; 
Emery paper; Edwards's apparatus for the manufacture of emery, sand, 
glass, and similar papers, illustrated and described .... 582 

Water-proof emery paper . 533 

Enamelled writing surfaces on pasteboard and paper ; Iridescent paper ; 
Imitation of mother-of-pearl on pajier ....... 584 

Leather waste. How prepared for use in the manufacture of paper ; 

Photo-lithographic transfer paper, and transfer color belonging to it . 585 
Preserving papers ; Tar paper ; Tracing paper ; Tracing linen, and Trans- 
parent packing paper . . . . . . . . . .586 

Making drawing paper transparent ; Transfer paper . . . . .587 

To make water- proof paper transparent ; Peterson's water-jDroof paper; 
wrapping paper for silverware. . . . . . ... . 588 

Writing, copying, and drawing paper, which can be washed . . . 589 

Index 591 



THE 



MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE HISTORY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The origins of nearly all those arts which have been 
slowly developed and which have so largely contributed to 
the progress and civilization of man are surrounded with 
so much obscurity that it is not possible to treat their early 
history in a satisfactory manner, for the reason that all such 
explanations must be more or less hypothetical. 

But even in these times of rapid development in all 
branches of mechanics and the arts, we cannot entirely free 
ourselves from that irresistible law of our nature which 
impels us to seek acquaintance with primitive past events in 
connection with matters under discussion, not so much with 
a view to gathering practical ideas as from interest. 

Men have in all ages been proud of their own achieve- 
ments, and it is to this that we owe our present state of 
civilization. Labor and a certain amount of self-conceit 
are the basis of progress. 

If all men were willing that their experiences and obser- 
vations should pass unrecorded, there could be no progres- 
sion in the human understanding beyond a certain point. 



18 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Men who have recorded their own thoughts and actions 
or those of others are the ones who have exerted the 
greatest influence for good or for evil in all ages. 

To have at one's disposal a plane surface upon which it is 
possible to delineate in more or less indelible and conven- 
tional signs the conceptions of the brain, has been a neces- 
sity which man has felt from the moment he emerged from 
the first stages of the savage state ; but before arriving at 
the present ingenious methods by means of which paper is 
manufactured, various primitive efforts to solve the problem 
have been made. 

The mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, each, in 
turn, have been utilized to supply man with a convenient 
substance upon which he could record the results of his 
studies or mark out his plans. 

The ancients used stone, clay, palm leaves, tablets of wax, 
of ivory, and of lead, linen and cotton tissues, guts, or skins ; 
also the interior barks of various plants. The skins of fishes 
and of snakes, and the shells of the tortoise and of the 
oyster have been in their turn used for the same piTrposes, 
and from them we derive the expressions of biblos, cordex, 
charta, etc., indicating the various substances used for 
writing upon. 

Stone has been largely employed, but clay is the most 
prominent mineral used in very ancient times for many pur- 
poses for which we now employ paper, and this is particularly 
true in regard to Assyria and Chaldea, in which countries 
almost every transaction of a public or private character was 
first written upon thin tablets of clay, or tiles, and then baked. 



HISTORY. 19 

Clay was probably used for writing upon, more than 2000 
years before Christ, but the prophet Ezekiel, who was 
among the captives near the E-iver Chebar, in the land of 
the Chaldeans, is among the first to describe the use to 
which the clay tile was sometimes put for receiving draw- 
ings or portraying plans. In 596 B. C, Ezekiel was com- 
manded to make use of this common Assyrian practice at 
the time when the siege of Jerusalem was prefigured, the 
commandment being in the following language : " Thou 
also, son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it before thee, 
and portray upon it the city, even Jerusalem." — Ezekiel 
iv. 1. 

Bank notes, notes of hand, deeds of property, private 
transactions, public records, transcripts of astronomical 
observations, and many things of this character have been 
and can still be found in a good state of preservation among 
the ruins of ancient Nineveh and Babylon ; but they are 
not traced upon papyrus or parchment, but are in the inde- 
structible terra-cotta. 

The best histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria 
come to us in this shape. There is something in these 
tablets of clay that forbids any desire on our part to dis- 
credit them. They seem to appeal to our practical under- 
standing, and the tendency to doubt them is not so strong as 
with some modern written histories. 

In the British Museum, in the Kouyunyik gallery, which 
contains the collection of bas-reliefs procured by Mr. Layard 
in 1849 and 1850 from the remains of a very extensive 
Assyrian edifice at Kouyunyik, possibly the palace of Sen- 



20 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

nacherib, who commenced his reign 705 B. C, there are 
arranged in six table-cases along the middle of the room, a 
large number of Assyrian antiquities. One table-case con- 
tains terra-cotta tablets referring to the language, legends, 
and mythology of the Assyrians, together with a selection 
of despatch or report tablets and letters. One series of 
these clay tablets is supposed to record the creation of the 
world. The first of the series gives an account of the first 
three days of the creation, in which it is stated that the 
Water-deep was the begetter of all the creatures then exist- 
ing, for there was not even a seed in the earth, and none of 
the gods had come forth. The remainder of the texts, 
which are extremely difficult to translate, refer to the cre- 
ating and placing of the heavenly bodies, the creation 
of creeping things, and of mankind instead of certain 
rebellious gods or angels, the war between the gods and 
Bisbistiamtu (the Water-chaos) and her servants, in which 
the latter were overthrown. Another tablet refers to the 
misfortunes of certain men who went forth and returned not, 
and mentions a flood. Three tablets, copies of the eleventh 
of the series entitled " The Record of Gistubar," are also of 
interest. This text contains the account of the flood, which is 
told to the hero by Umnapistim — the Babylonian Noah— 
who states that the gods within Suripak, a city on the 
Euphrates, determined to make a flood, and Umnapistim 
was commanded to build a ship, and to put within it all his 
property, the members of his family, and the beasts and 
cattle of the field. The coming of the flood, its abatement, 
the resting of the ship on the mountain of Nizir, and the 



HISTORY. 21 

sending forth of a dove, a swallow, and a raven on the 
seventh day, are also told, together with the coming forth 
from the ship. The god Bel, however, was angry that all 
the race of mankind had not been destroyed ; but the god 
Hea appeased his wrath, the patriarch and his family were 
allowed to live, and the gods took him and his wife to a 
" remote place at the mouth of the rivers," supposed to be 
the region of the Persian Gulf. 

The Egyptian papyri in the British Museum are arranged 
in glass cases on the northwestern staircase, and they show the 
three forms of writing in use among the Egyptians: 1. The 
Hieroglyphic, in which all the characters or figures are sepa- 
rately and distinctly defined. 2. The Hieratic, in which the 
same characters are represented in what may be termed a 
running hand. 3. The Demotic, or Enchorial, a still more 
cursive form, in which the language of the common people 
was written ; it was principally employed in civil transac- 
tions during the Ptolemaic period, and continued in use 
to the third or fourth century of our era. 

The hieroglyphic character was in use in Egypt as early 
as the third dynasty, the date of which is placed about 4000 
B. C. by some chronologists ; but no hieroglyphic papyri of 
that remote age are extant, and the oldest examples known 
appear to be of the eighteenth dynasty — about 1700 B. C. 
Hieroglyphic writing seems to have been employed almost 
exclusively for religious purposes, and the papyri written in 
it are Rituals, or the Book of the Dead, as it is called, a copy 
of which has been published by Professor Lepsius, under 
the title of ' Das Todtenbuch der Agypten,' 4to, Leipzig, 



22 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

1842. The chapters of this book contained in the work of 
Lepsins are as old as the eleventh dynasty — about 2000 
B. C. — and continued in use till the thirty-first dynasty — 
about 340 B. C. 

The hieratic or written form of the hieroglyphics appears 
first about the age of the fifth dynasty, and continued in 
existence till the first century of our era, when it became 
superseded for all purposes by the demotic. The entire 
ritual is rarely found in the hieratic character at an early 
period, portions only having been rarely transcribed into 
that character till the twentieth dynasty. Other religious 
works, however, appear in it as early as the eleventh dynasty, 
when the linen wraps of mummies were inscribed with ritu- 
alistic formulas. Other works occur in hieratic. A few 
papyri of later date contain the Shai en Sinsin, or the 
Book of the Respirations, i. e., the sighs or lamentations 
of Isis, containing extracts of portions of chapters in the 
Ritual, or expressions similar to them. The affairs of official 
and private life were written hieratic, and amongst the 
papyri exhibited are found literary compositions, scientific 
treatises, law documents, criminal police reports, registers 
or inventories of valuable or other objects. 

The demotic papyri consist of rituals, literary composi- 
tions, deeds of sale, contracts of marriage, all indorsed by 
witnesses. At an early period these witnesses were few in 
number, but as many as sixteen are found in later times. 
These deeds, which are dated in the regnal years of the 
monarchs at the time of execution, commence in the age of 



HISTORY. 23 

Tirhakah, nearly 800 B. C, and run on till the end of the 
first century, A. D. The religious books continue, how- 
ever, until apparently about the end of 300 B. C. Letters, 
memoranda, and registers were also wTitten in the demotic. 

The width of the Egyptian papyri rarely exceeded 15 
inches, but their length sometimes, though rarely, extended 
to 150 feet. Papyrus, both before use and afterwards, was 
rolled up into a cylindrical roll, and, when opened for the 
purpose of reading, unrolled from the ends. Besides these 
methods, the papyri were occasionally placed in wooden 
figures, always colored black, of the god Osiris standing on 
a pedestal, either in the hollowed body of the god, or else 
in a place in the pedestal, covered by a small slip, the whole 
so carefully painted over as not to give any indication of the 
papyrus within. 

The Roman scholar, Varro, is indorsed by Pliny in the 
statement that the discovery of the use of papyrus ^vas an 
incident in the victorious expedition of Alexander of Mace- 
don. But w^hen we consider that Egyptian tombs plainly 
demonstrate that papyrus was used not only long prior to 
the time of Alexander, but also previous to any authentic 
historical account of Greece, it becomes manifest that 
Varro's statement is erroneous ; doubtless, however, the 
expedition of Alexander materially aided in introducing the 
papyrus among the western nations. 

Papyrus is an aquatic plant common in many warm coun- 
tries and especially in Egypt, and from the layer between 
the flesh and thick bark of this reed or flag the Greeks and 
the Romans obtained the paper which they used for a long 



24 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

time. The strips or ribbons of different lengths obtained by 
peeling the interior of the bark were bleached in the sun, 
then spread open upon a table and covered crosswise by 
other strips ; then moistened with water and pressed, thus 
causing the adhesion of the strips by means of the vegetable 
mucilage naturally present in the bark. In this manner 
sheets were obtained which the Komans sized with a starch 
of fecula or flour. 

It is difficult to determine at exactly what time the use of 
Egyptian papyrus was entirely superseded by cotton paper, 
as the latter material could have been introduced only by 
degrees, and papyrus was also employed for special purposes 
long after the general introduction of cotton paper. 

Leather was used by the Israelites as a material to write 
upon. Parchment for writing upon with ink was probably 
invented by Eumenes, king of Pergamos, whence the name 
is derived. 

The parchment used by the lonians in the time of Hero- 
dotus was coarser than that invented by Eumenes, and was 
probably painted upon with especially prepared pigments. 

The skins of sheep, lambs, and calves are principally em- 
ployed for the manufacture of parchment, and although the 
use of this material for common purposes has greatly dimin- 
ished of late years, still it continues to be extensively pro- 
duced for special purposes. For diplomas, parchment is 
even now almost exclusively employed. 

In addition to the materials which have been named, thin 
boards of wood covered with wax or some similar composi- 
tion, and plates of ivory and of metal, have also been used. 



HISTORY. 25 

Most convenient materials were also afforded by the bark 
and the leaves of some species of trees. In the time of Con- 
fucius the Chinese wrote with a style or bodkin, on the inner 
bark of the bamboo. 

It is probably not desirable that we should further enlarge 
upon the mineral, vegetable, and animal substances previously 
named, and which have in times past been so extensively 
employed in lieu of the material which is now commonly 
known as paper. 

Our word paper is derived from the Latin papyrus, which 
is the Greek TtoCTtupog, and the Egyptian papu, meaning a 
reed. Paper is now commonly made by machinery from 
cotton and linen rags, and also from wood, straw, esparto 
grass, and numerous other vegetable fibres, the material being 
reduced to a pulp and afterwards formed into a thin sheet 
which is subjected to pressure, and finally dried. The sheets 
of paper may be of greater or less thickness, width, and 
length, or the paper may be produced in indefinite lengths 
and formed into rolls. The finishing of the paper, with or 
without vegetable or animal size, of course depends upon the 
purpose for which it is to be employed. 

In addition to being the common material for printing and 
writing upon, and for bags, boxes, and wrapping, paper also 
finds numerous secondary employments, such as for toilet 
purposes, and is also manufactured into barrels, berry, and 
grape baskets, and pails, buckets, carpets, mattings, carwheels, 
collars, cuiFs, curtains, dishes, elevator seats, and panelling, 
napkins, observatory domes, picture frames, roofing-felt, roof- 
ing-tiles, racing-shells, and twine, and in mechanical construe- 



26 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tion. Paper has also been used for journal bearings, pack- 
ing for steam engines, for belting, etc. A manufacturer in 
Breslau, Germany, is said to have built a chimney over 
fifty feet in height out of compressed paper blocks, used 
in place of bricks. Paper has also been used in place of 
wood in the manufacture of lead pencils. 

It is a source of much regret in tracing the origin of 
so valuable an art as that of the fabrication of modern 
paper that no accurate estimate can be formed as to the 
precise time of its adoption. 

In 1755 and 1763, in order to stimulate researches in 
this direction, the Hoyal Society of Sciences at Gottingen 
offered valuable premiums for that especial object, but the 
result sought to be accomplished was altogether unattained, 
and all such investigations, however directed, proved fruit- 
less. In 1762, M. Miserman offered a prize for the oldest 
manuscript written on rag paper. 

The different minutes of the proceedings of this competi- 
tion, printed at The Hague, in 1767, unite in admitting 
that paper of this kind was used prior to the commence- 
ment of the fourteenth century. 

In the tract of Peter, Abbot of Cluny (A. D. 1122-50), 
adversus Judcecos^ cap. 5, among the various kinds of 
books, we find the first mention of rag paper when he refers 
to such books as are written on material made " ex rasuris 
veterum pannorum,'''' It has been thought probable that at 
this early period woollen cloth is intended; but of this point 
we shall have more to say later on in discussing the inven- 
tion of linen paper. The process of making writing paper 



HISTORY. 27 

from fibrous materials, and, among other substances, from 
the wool of the cotton plant, reduced to a pulp, appears, 
according to the works of Mr. Stanislas Julien, to have been 
practised by the (yhinese as early as the year 152 of our 
era,^ But it was not until the commencement of the eighth 
century of the Christian era that the art of manufacturing 
cotton paper became known to the western world, and this 
was accomplished through the Arabs, who, in 704, captured 
Samarcand, and there learned the method of using and 
making paper. 

The Arabs at once took up the manufacture of paper in 



■ The raw materials which were used at first and which have continued in use, 
are the barks of trees {Morua, Broussonetia papyrifera), hemp, bamboo, straw, 
and old linen. 

The paper most used is obtained from bamboo stems chipped in small frag- 
ments. The fibres become disintegrated after a few weeks by means of lime- 
water, and are bruised energetically and the pulp is treated with an alkaline 
wash. The washed pulp is then made in sheets by means of moulds similar to 
those used for hand-made paper. After dessication in the air the sheets are 
dried upon heated plates. These sheets are used for letter paper, commercial 
books, and wrapping paper. Rolled up in cylindrical shape, and, provided it 
offers to the spark a part already carbonized, this paper will ignite and burn like 
tinder ; in this form it is used as lighting matches. 

In the north of China, where bamboo does not grow, they use the bark of 
broussonetia, care being observed to disintegrate the fibres very little, so that 
they will felt. By this method there are obtained large sheets, transparent 
enough, of a variable thickness, which are used for wrapping, and in the manu- 
facture of umbrellas and window-panes. The paper, improperly called rice 
paper, is obtained from the marrow of the Olrelia papyri/era. The operator 
rolls with the left hand the roll of marrow upon a plane surface, while with his 
right he engages, in an almost tangential direction, a thin and sharp blade in the 
marrow. By this equal and continuous rotatory movement he cuts a sheet more 
or less thin, more or less long. This paper, white and soft to the eye, is used in 
the manufacture of those colored designs which are produced in the shops of 
Canton. (Champion, L' Orient, Archives de I'industrie au xix. Siecle, t. v. 
p. 297.) 



28 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Samarcand, and a thorough knowledge of the curious art 
rapidly spread through all their empire, 

Gliarta}^ Damascena is one of the titles which was 
applied in the Middle Ages to the cotton paper which was 
manufactured in large quantities at Damascus. 

The statement that cotton paper was early extensively 
adopted by the Arabs for literary employments is corrobo- 
rated by the numerous Arabic manuscripts written on paper 
during the ninth and tenth centuries.^ 

Bombacinum was used at Rome in the tenth century. 

' In addition to being termed cliarta and jjapyrus^ cotton paper was also 
known in the Middle Ages as charta bombi/cina, gossypina, cuttimea, xylina, 
Damascena, and serica; the latter title being probably suggested by its glossy 
and silken appearance. 

2 The following, compiled from the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica,' may be 
instanced as a few of the earliest dated examples. The ' Gharibu I'Hadith,' a 
treatise on the rare and curious words in the sayings of Mohammed and his com- 
panions, written in the year 866, is probably one of the oldest paper MSS. in 
existence (Pal. Soc, Orient Ser., pi. 6). It is preserved in the University 
Library of Leyden, A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment of 
the different members of the body, of the year 960, is the oldest dated Arabic 
MS. on paper in the British Museum (Or. MS. 2600, Pal. Soc, pi. 96). The 
Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the 'Diwann I'Adab,' a grammatical work 
of 974 A. D., of particular interest as having been written at Samarcand on 
paper, presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal. Soc, 
pl. 60). Other early examples are a volume of poems written at Bagdad, 990 
A. D., now at Leipsic, and the Gospel of St. Luke, 993 A. D., in the Vatican 
Library (Pal. Soc, pis. 7, 21). In the great collection of Syriac MSS., which 
were obtained from the Nitrian desert in Egyjjt, and are now in the British 
Museum, there are many volumes written on cotton paper of the tenth century. 
The oldest two dated examples, however, are not earlier than 1075 and 1084 
A. D. 

It may not be amiss to include in this note a few words regarding the extant 
samples of cotton paper MSS. written in European countries. 

Several which have been quoted by former writers as early instances have 
proved, on more recent examination, to be nothing but vellum. The ancient 
fragments of the Gospel of St. Mark, preserved at Venice, which were stated by 
Moffer to be of cotton paper, by Montfaucon of papyrus, and by the Benedictines 



HISTORY. 29 

The Empress Irene, wife of Alexes Commene, at about 
the close of the eleventh century or the commencement of 
the twelfth, in the statutes for regulating some religious 
houses at Constantinople, states that she had left three 
copies of these statutes, two on parchment and one on 
cotton paper (de Martin, ' Essais chimiques sur les arts et 
manufactures,' t. iii. p. 161). 

" ToJle 'pergamenam GrcEcam^ quce fit ex Jana Ungi,^' are 
the words used by Theophilus, presbyter, who wrote in the 
twelfth century/ 

But notwithstanding this early reference to cotton paper 
by Theophilus, under the name of Greek parchment, paper 
probably was not used to any great extent in Greece, much 
prior to the second half of the thirteenth century, for there 
are no reliable Greek MSS. on paper which bear an earlier 
date than about the middle of that century. 

After the capture of Samarcand in 704, the Arabians 
transplanted the art of fabricating paper to Spain, and to 

of bark, are in fact written on skin. The oldest European document on cotton 
paper is a diploma of King Roger of Sicily, of the year 1102. The oldest known 
imperial deed on the same material is a charter of Frederick II., to the nuns of 
Goess in Styria, of the year 1228, now at Vienna. In 1231, however, the same 
emperor, on account of the liability of paper made from cotton to be affected by 
the damp atmosphere, forbade further use of paper for official documents, which 
were in future to be inscribed on vellum. In France the Liber plec/iorum, the 
entries of which began with the year 1223, is made of rough cotton paper ; and 
similarly the registers of the Council of Ten, beginning in 1325, and of the 
Emperor Henry VII. (1308-13), preserved at Tunis, are also written on a like 
substance. The letters addressed from Castile to the English king, Edward I., 
in 1279 and following years (Pauli in Bericht. Berl. Akad., 1854), are instances 
of Spanish-made paper ; and other specimens in existence prove that in this 
latter country a rough kind of charta bonbycina was manufactured to a compar- 
atively late date. ' Encyclop83dia Brit.' 
' Schedula diversarum artium, 1, 23. 



30 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the Moors, the credit of first manutacturing paper in Europe 
is undoubtedly due. 

Valencia and its neighbor Xativa, as also Toledo, the 
latter city being about forty miles distant from Madrid, 
were the primitive seats of the cotton-paper industry in 
Europe. 

When the Crusaders visited Byzantium, Palestine, and 
Syria, they became acquainted with the great convenience 
and the value of paper, and they carried back with them 
some knowledge of its manufacture. But it was not until 
after the fourth crusade that the first paper-mills were estab- 
lished in France, the art of making cotton paper being intro- 
duced in the year 1189, in the district of Herault. 

The French were a very energetic and cultured race, and 
as the Norman buildings of the twelfth century plainly 
show, they took excessive delight in construction ; their 
princes and nobles seem to have taken their greatest pleasure 
in dwelling in and constantly beautifying their magnificent 
castles. 

They did not care so much for feasting and high living 
as their English neighbors, but devoted their time and 
talents to the development of those arts and manufactures 
which contribute so greatly to the refinement of society. 

In the twelfth century new ideas everywhere appeared at 
once in France, and the people prosecuted their acquired 
knowledge and their own inventions with so much energy 
and skill that we are not surprised at the very rapid develop- 
ment of the paper trade in France during the fourteenth 
century, for she was not only soon in a position to provide for 



HISTORY. 31 

her own wants, but also to supply all her neighbors. Troyes 
and Essonnes are the oldest centres of the paper industry in 
France. 

The great progress of France in paper manufacture stimu- 
lated the fabrication of paper in the Netherlands, and for a 
long period the French and Dutch papers were the best 
produced in Europe. 

That England was far less progressive in the manufacture 
of paper than either of the two countries which have been 
last mentioned, is incontestibly shown by the language of 
the English patent of John Briscoe, granted Jtily 4, 1685, 
and which is for: " The true art and way of making English 
paper for writing, printing, and for other uses, hoth as good 
and as sermceahle in all respects and as white as any French 
or Dutch 'pa'pery 

It seems almost incredible that no paper was made in 
England prior to the time of the Tudor s, but such indeed 
seems to be the fact. 

A manufacturer by the name of Tait is stated to have 
operated a paper manufactory in Hertfort early in the six- 
teenth century, and a German named Spielman is said to 
have had a paper-mill at Dartford in 1588; but if paper was 
produced at these works it was undoubtedly of the common 
sort. 

In corroboration of the last statement we have the lan- 
guage of the first English patent for making paper granted 
as late as February 16, 1665, to Charles Hildegerd for "the 
way and art of making blew paper used by sugar bakers and 
others," and also the second English patent for paper granted 



32 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in January, 1675, to Eustace Barneby, for "The art and skill 
of making all sorts of white paper for the use of writing and 
printing, being a new manufacture and never practised in 
any loay in any of our Jdngdoms or domi7iions,^' thus show- 
ing the incipiency in England of the manufacture of writing 
and printing paper/ 

After the fall of the Moorish power and the decline of the 
paper-making industry in Spain, the little town of Fabriano 
in the province of Ancona, in Central Italy, rose into promi- 
nence as a centre for the fabrication of fine paper. In 1340 
a paper-mill was established at Padua, this was followed by 
one at Treviso, and then a little later other paper manu- 
factories were established in the territories of Florence, 
Bologna, Milan, Venice, etc. 

Southern Germany, even as late as the fifteenth century, 
imported most of its paper from the line of factories in 
Northern Italy. 

Italian workmen were, however, induced to aid in estab- 
lishing paper-mills in Germany, and the manufacture of 
paper was commenced in the latter country at an early date, 
and numerous mills were operated during the fourteenth 
century near Cologne and in Mainz, in the latter even as 
early as about 1320. 

Nuremberg did not possess a paper-mill until 1390; but 
Augsburgh and Ratisbon were places of early manufacture. 

' In regard to the early use of cotton paper in England for writing upon there 
is evidence that it was employed for registers and accounts even as early as 1309. 
The register of the Hustings Court of Lyme Regis, now in the British Museum, 
contains entries which commenced in the last-named year. But the appearance of 
the paper shows that it was without doubt imported either Irom Spain or from 
France. 



HISTORY. 33 

The Arabians in Spain were the first to mix rags with the 
cotton pulp in the fabrication of paper, and in that im- 
ported into England from Spain at the commencement of 
the fourteenth century the threads of rags are plainly visible 
imbedded in the pulp. 

Linen paper was first made in Europe in the fourteenth 
century, but until about the middle of that century woollen 
fabrics probably formed a large percentage of the material 
from which the pulp was produced, but in individual in- 
stances this fact requires to be established by the assistance 
of the microscope. 

The period and manner of the invention of linen paper 
are thus described in ' Trextinum Antiquorum,' by James 
Yates, M.A., Tart I. pp. 383-388 : " No part of the res dipJo- 
matica has been more frequently discussed than the question 
respecting the origin of paper made from linen rags. The 
inquiry is interesting on account of the unspeakable import- 
ance of this material in connection with the progress of 
knowledge and all the means of civilization, and it also 
claims attention from the philologist as an aid in determin- 
ing the age of manuscripts. 

" Wehrs refers to a document written A. D. 1308, as the 
oldest known specimen of linen paper ; and, as the inven- 
tion must have been at least a little previous to the prepara- 
tion of this document, he fixes upon 1300 as its probable 
date.^ Various writers on the subject, as Von Murr, Breit- 
kopf, Schunemann, etc., concur in this opinion. 

' ' Vom Papier,' pp. 309, 343. 



34 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

" Gotthelf Fischer, in his essay on paper marks,^ cites an 
extract from an account written in 1301 on linen paper. 
In this specimen the mark is a circle surmounted by a sprig, 
at the end of which is a star. The paper is thick, firm, and 
well grained; and its water-lines and water-marks (vergures 
et pontuseaux) may readily be distinguished. 

" The date was carried considerably higher by Schwandner, 
principal keeper of the Imperial Library at Vienna, who 
Ibund among the charters of the Monastery of Gossin Upper 
Styria one in a state of decay, only seven inches long and three 
wide. So highly did he estimate the value of this curious 
relic as to publish in 1788 a full account of his discovery in 
a thin quarto volume, which bears the following title: 
' Chartam linteam antiquissiman, omnia hactenus p.roducta 
specimina tetate sua superantem, ex cimeliis Bibliothecge 
AugustEe Vindobonensis, exponit Jo. Ge. Schwandner,' etc. 
The document is a mandate of Frederick II., Emperor of the 
Komans, entrusting to the Archbishop of Saltzburg and the 
Duke of Austria the determination of a dispute between the 
Duke of Carinthia and the Monastery of Goss, respecting 
the property of the latter in Carinthia. Schwandner proves 
the date of it to be 1243. He does not say whether it has 
any lines or water-marks, but is quite satisfied from its flexi- 
bility and other qualities that it is linen. Although on the 
first discovery of this document some doubt was expressed as 
to its genuineness, it appears to have risen in estimation with 



' This essay translated into French is published by Jansen, in his ' Essai sur 
I'origine de la gravurc en bois et en taille-douce.' Paris, 1808, tome i. pp. 357- 
385. 



HISTORY. 35 

succeeding writers ; and it is probable rather from inadvert- 
ence than from any deficiency in the evidence, that it is not 
noticed at all by Schonemann, Ebert, Celandine, or by 
Home. Due attention is, however, bestowed upon it by 
August Friedrich PfeifFer, ' Uber Biicher-Handschriften, 
Erlangen,' 1810, pp. 39, 40. 

" With regard to the circumstances which led to the inven- 
tion of the paper now in common use, or the country in 
which it took place, we find in the writers on the subject 
from Polydore Virgil to the present day nothing but con- 
jectures or confessions of ignorance. Wehrs supposes, and 
others follow him, that in making paper linen rags were 
either by accident or through design at first mixed with 
cotton rags, so as to produce a paper which was partly linen 
and partly cotton, and that this led by degrees to the manu- 
facture of paper from linen only.^ Wehrs also endeavors to 
claim the honor of the invention for Germany, his own 
country ; but Schonemann gives that distinction to Italy, 
because there, in the district of Ancona, a considerable 
manufacture of cotton paper was carried on before the four- 
teenth century.^ All, however, admit that they have no 
satisfactory evidence on the subject. 

" A clear light is thrown upon these questions by a remark'^ 
of the Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited Egypt 



' ' Vora Papier,' p. 183. 2 ' Diplomatik,' vol. i. p. 494. 

^ Chapter iv. p. 188 of Silvesfre de Sacy's French transhition, p.- 221 of 
Wahl's German translation. This interesting passage was translated as follows 
by Edward Pococke, the younger. "Et qui ex Arabibus, incolisve Rifae aliieve 
has areas indagant, htec integumenta diripiunt, quodque in iis rapiendum 
invenitur ; et conficiunt sibi vestes, aut ea chartariis vendunt ad confic-iendam 



36 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

A. D. 1200. He informs us ' that the cloth found in the cata- 
comhs, and used to envelop the mummies^ was made into gar- 
ments or sold to the scribes to mahe paper for shoplceepers.^ 
This cloth was hnen, and the passage of AbdoUatiph is proof, 
which, however, has never been produced as such, of the 
manufacture of linen paper as early as the year 1200. 

" This account coincides remarkably with what we know 
from various other sources. Professor Tychsen, in his 
learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from 
papyrus (published in the ' Commentationes Eeg. Soc. 
Gottingensis Recentiores,' vol. iv. A. D. 1820), has brought 
abundant testimony to prove that Egypt supplied all 
Europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the 
eleventh century. The use of it was then abandoned, cotton 
paper being employed instead. The Arabs in consequence 
of their conquests in Bucharia had learned the art of making 
cotton paper about the year 704, and through them or the 
Saracens it was introduced into Europe in the eleventh 
century.^ We may therefore consider it as in the highest 
degree probable, that the mode of making cotton paper was 
known to the paper-makers of Egypt. At the same time 
endless quantities of linen cloth, the best of all materials for 
the manufacture of paper, were to be obtained from the 
catacombs. 

" If we put together these circumstances we cannot but 
perceive how they concur in illustrating and justifying the 

chartam eniporeatieam." Silvestre de Sacy (Notice, etc.), animadverting on 
White's version, which is entirely different, expresses his approbation of Pococke's, 
from which Wahl's does not materially ditler. 

' Wehrs, ' vom Papier,' pp. 131, 144, note. Breitkopf, p. 81. 



HISTORY. 37 

statement of Abdollatiph. We perceive the interest which 
the great Egyptian paper-manufacturers had in the improve- 
ment of their article, and the unrivalled facilities which they 
possessed for this purpose ; and thus the direct testimony of 
an eye-witness of the highest reputation for veracity and 
intelligence, supported as it is by collateral probabilities, 
tends to clear up in a great measure the long-agitated ques- 
tion respecting the origin of paper such as we now com- 
monly use for writing. 

" The evidence being carried thus far, we may now take 
in connection with it the following passage from Petrus 
Cluniacensis : — 

" ' Sed cvjusmodi Ubrum ? SI talem quales quotidie in usu 
legendi Jiabemas, utique ex pell'ibus arietum, hwcoriim, vel 
vitulorum, sive ex hihlis, veljancis orientalium paludum, aut 
ex rasuris veterum pannorum^ sen ex qualibet alia forte 
viliore materia compactos^ et pennis avium vel calamis 
palustrium locornm, qualibet tinctura infectis descriptos.^ 
Tractatas adv. Judaeos, c. v. in Max. Bibl. vet. Patriim^ 
tom. xxii. p. 1014. 

" All the writers upon this subject, except Trombelli, 
suppose the Abbot of Cluny to allude in the phrase 'ex 
rasuris veterum paiuiorum'' to the use of woollen and 
cotton cloth only, and not of linen. But, as we are now 
authorized to carry up the invention of linen paper higher 
than before, and as the mention of it by Abdollatiph justi- 
fies the conclusion that it was manufactured in Egypt some 
time before his visit to that country in 1200, we may rea- 
sonably conjecture that Petrus Cluniacensis alluded to the 



38 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

same fact. The treatise above quoted is supposed to have 
been written A. D. 1120. The account of the materials 
used for making books appears to be full and accurate. 
The expression '■scrapings of old cloths' agrees exactly with 
the mode of making paper from Ihien rags, but is not in 
accordance with any facts known to us respecting the use 
of woollen or cotton cloth. The only objection I can sup- 
pose to arise to this view of the subject is, that, as Peter of 
Cluny had not when he wrote this passage travelled east- 
ward of France, we can scarcely suppose him to have been 
sufficiently acquainted with the manners and productions of 
Egypt to introduce any allusion to their newly invented 
mode of making paper. But we know that the Abbey of 
Cluny had more than three hundred churches, colleges, and 
monasteries dependent on it, and that at least two of these 
were in Palestine and one at Constantinople. The inter- 
course which must have subsisted in this way between the 
Abbey of Cluny and the Levant may account for the 
Abbot Peter's acquaintance with the fact, and I therefore 
think it probable that he alludes to the manufacture of 
paper in Egypt from the cloth of mummies, which on this 
supposition had been invented early in the twelfth century.^ 
" Another fact, which not only coincides with all the evi- 
dence now produced, but carries the date of the invention 
still a little higher, is the description of the manuscript No. 



■ Gibbon says (vol. v. p. 295, 4to. edition), "The inestimable art of trans- 
forming linen into paper has been diffused from the manufacture of Snmarcand 
over the western world." This assertion seems to me entirely destitute of 
foundation. 



HISTORY. 39 

787, containing an Arabic version of the 'Aphorisms of 
Hippocrates,' in Casiri's 'Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana 
Escurialensis,' torn. i. p. 235. This MS. was probably 
brought from Egypt, or the East. It has a date corre- 
sponding to A. D. 1100, and is of linen paper, according to 
Casiri, who calls it ' Chartaceus.' 

" ' Cordices chartacei^ i. e., MSS. on linen paper, as old as 
the thirteenth century, are mentioned not unfrequently in 
the catalogues of the Escurial, the Nani, and other libraries. 

" The preceding facts coincide with the opinion long ago 
expressed by Prindeaux, who concluded that linen paper was 
an Eastern invention, because 'most of the old MSS. in 
Arabic and other Oriental languages are written on this sort 
of paper,' and that it was first introduced into Europe by 
the Saracens of Spain."^ 

In the first years of the fourteenth century the art of 
fabricating paper had become a truly European industry, 
and it, therefore, becomes manifest that it is of much prac- 
tical importance to seek to define the line of demarcation 
between the two classes of linen paper then made. 

The papers into which linen first entered as a constituent 
of the pulp may be described as water-marked and non- 
water-marked, the first-named variety of paper making its 
appearance in the early years of the fourteenth century. 

The Oriental fashion was to make the paper without 
water-marks, and while instances of cotton paper of the 
Oriental pattern made in the first half of the fourteenth 



' Old and New Testament connected, part I., chapter vii., p. 393, 3d edition, 
folio. 



40 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

century are extant, still they occur but seldom, if ever, in 
the north of Europe. 

The water-marks on paper have been partially investi- 
gated with a view to discovering the various channels in 
which the trade in paper of different nations travelled ; but 
up to this time there has been no thorough and systematic 
collection of water-marks and consequently no classifica- 
tion can now be made. 

The student will be greatly aided in fixing very approxi- 
mate periods to undated documents by acquiring a know- 
ledge of the different varieties of paper and of water-marks. 

" Rag paper of the fourteenth century may generally be 
recognized by its firm texture, its stoutness, and the large 
size of its wires. The water-marks are usually simple in 
design ; and being the result of the impress of thick wires, 
they are, therefore, strongly marked. In the course of the 
fifteenth century the texture gradually becomes finer and 
the water-marks more elaborate. While the old subjects of 
the latter are still continued in use, they are more neatly 
outlined, and, particularly in Italian paper, they are fre- 
quently inclosed in circles. The practice of inserting the 
full name of the maker in the water-marks came into 
fashion in the sixteenth century. The variety of subjects of 
water-marks is quite extensive. Animals, birds, fishes, 
heads, flowers, domestic and warlike implements, armorial 
bearings, etc., are found from the earliest times. Some of 
these, such as armorial bearings, and national, provincial 
or personal cognizances, as the imperial crown, the crossed 
keys, or the cardinal's hat, can be attributed to particular 
countries or districts, and the wide dissemination of the 



HISTORY. 41 

paper bearing these marks in different countries seems to 
prove how large and international was the paper trade in 
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." {^Encyc. Brit.') 

Some idea of the rapidity with which paper-making has 
been developed in Europe may be judged from the fact that 
at this writing (Jan. 1886) there are probably not less than 
three thousand five hundred paper-mills in Europe. 

Germany possesses by far the largest number of mills of 
any country in Europe, after which comes France, next 
Great Britain, then Austro-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, 
Sweden, Holland, Norway, Switzerland, Belgium, Portugal, 
and Denmark, all following in regular order according to 
their present relative importance in paper manufacture. 

The paper-mills of Asia are few, and the aggregate of all 
of them would probably not be equal to the number of mills 
in the smallest paper-making country of Europe, which is 
Denmark, with about fifteen mills. 

In China there are probably no modern paper-mills. But 
Japan has several in operation, and, judging from the pro- 
gress shown in tlie machine-made paper on which are 
printed the first, second, and third statistical reports on 
agriculture published by the department of agriculture and 
commerce, Tokio, Japan, and which now lie before the 
author, he hazards the opinion that Japan will in the 
near future become a paper-making country of considerable 
importance. 

India is also rapidly developing her paper manufacture, 
and is probably abreast of Japan in this department. 

The Australasian Continent contains but few mills, Austra- 
lia of course leading. 



42 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

On the Western Continent we find the Dominion of 
Canada producing paper in about the same quantity as 
Norway, which latter country occupies but an insignificant 
position among the paper-making countries of Europe. 

All the paper-mills in South America do not probably 
exceed in number those of Japan, and in Cuba and Mexico 
there are not more than two or three mills. 

But in the United States we find the greatest paper- 
manufacturing country in the world, and the great and re- 
lentless energy with which our country is developing her 
productions in excess of all other nations is shown in one 
instance in the strides which she has made in the fabrication 
of paper. 

We have already shown that the manufacture of paper 
for writing and printing upon was probably not under way in 
England prior to the year 1685, but it is probable that the 
fabrication of paper did not flourish in that country until 
after the year 1688, for in the ' British Merchant' of the 
latter year we find the statement that hardly any sort of 
paper except brown was made in England previous to the 
Revolution, and in 1689 Bohun, in his autobiography, says 
" paper became so dear that all printing stopped almost, 
and the stationers did not care to undertake anything." 

If England was not entirely dependent upon other nations 
her publishers would not have been reduced in 1689 to such 
dire straits as stated by Bohun to have existed. 

The first paper-mill was established in America in 1690, 
the mill being near Philadelphia, Pa., and thus we find the 
manufacture of paper to have commenced almost simulta- 
neously in America and in England. 



HISTORY. 43 

But now, after the lapse of almost two centuries, we dis- 
cover that the United States possesses mills for the manu- 
facture of paper which exceed in number the aggregate of 
those in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, with the 
addition of France, Belgium, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, 
and Holland. 

When we realize that this remarkable development has 
been made in spite of almost insurmountable obstacles and 
serious foreign competition, added to the drain upon our 
energies caused by the two wars with Great Britain, our own 
civil war, disastrous industrial depressions, and numerous 
financial panics, and complications in currency, it forcibly 
reminds us how surely and rapidly the great advance which 
our country is making in mechanics and the arts is unset- 
tling the commerce of the world. 

There are in this industry, as in all others, times of de- 
pression, but the natural facilities for obtaining the raw 
material, the great ingenuity of our people, added to the 
large home consumption of paper, with an increasing export 
demand, are certain to keep the United States in the posi- 
tion of the leading paper-producing country in the world. 

The art of printing was, of course, the immediate cause 
stimulating the manufacture of paper, and it was through 
the efforts of William Bradford, one of the earliest printers 
in the American colonies, that the first paper-mill was estab- 
lished on our soil. 

Bradford realized the advantage of having a constant 
supply of paper near at hand, and he, therefore, readily 
joined William Kittenhuysen, who had emigrated from 



44 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Broich, in Holland, in the project of starting a paper-mill in 
Roxborough, near Philadelphia. The location for the mill 
was selected on a small tributary of the Wissahickon, the 
pure water of the little stream, which is still called Paper 
Mill Kun, making it very desirable for paper-making ; the 
abundant supply of cotton and linen rags in the neighbor- 
hood furnishing ample raw material for continuing the mill for 
a long time. The name of Rittenhiiysen in time became angli- 
cized into that of Rittenhouse, which is now in common use. 

In 1710 and 1728 other paper-mills were established in 
Pennsylvania by relations and apprentices of Rittenhouse. 

In 1724, William Bradford made an effort to induce the 
council of New York to grant him an exclusive privilege 
for manufacturing paper in the province for the space of 
fifteen years, but was unsuccessful. But, in 1728, Bradford 
succeeded in establishing a mill in Elizabethtown, N. J., 
which was the first paper-mill in the State. 

In 1727, Thomas Willcox, a native of England, built the 
Ivy Mill, on Chester Creek, in what is now Delaware County, 
Pa., on land purchased from Wm. Penn. This property has 
remained continuously in this family, who are still manufac- 
turers of paper under the firm name of James M. Willcox iSi, 
Co., the oldest existing commercial house in America, and who 
now have other mills on the same tract of land. Ivy Mill 
still stands, although it has not been used for several years. 

In the records of Massachusetts for 1730, there is an Act 
for the encouragement of the first paper-mill built in New 
England, passed September 13th, 1728, granting a patent to 
Daniel Henchman, Gillam Phillips, Benjamin Faneuil, 



HISTORY. 45 

Thomas Hancock, and Henry Dering, for the sole manufac- 
ture of paper in the province for ten years. 

The granting of the patent was conditional upon the pro- 
duction of a stated quantity of paper yearly, until at the end 
of the third year and each year thereafter the total annual 
produce of the various qualities of paper described in the 
patent was not to be less than five hundred reams. The 
proprietors mentioned in the above Act soon erected a small 
paper-mill in Milton, afterward in the county of Norfolk,- 
on a site adjoining the Neponset River. The master- work- 
man at the mill was an Englishman, by the name of Henry 
Woodman, under whose management very satisfactory quali- 
ties of paper were produced, samples of which were exhi- 
bited to the Court in General Term, in 17f31, by one of the 
proprietors of the mill, Daniel Henchman, an enterprising 
bookseller of Boston. 

It is not probable that the mill at Milton suffered for the 
want of raw material, for in 1732 we find E-ichard Fry, of 
Cornhill, Boston, who was an agent for the mill, thanking 
the public for saving and selling him their rags, of which 
he had already received upwards of seven thousand weight. 
But on account of the scarcity of good workmen the mill 
was finally compelled to stop, and was afterward sold to Mr. 
Jeremiah, Smith, who also for the lack of suitable workmen 
was unable to utilize his purchase. 

In 1760 the mill was again started by James Boies, of 
Boston, who became acquainted with a soldier by the name 
of Hazleton who was a practical paper-maker and a 
member of a British regiment then stationed in Boston. 



46 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Tt was not a difficult matter to obtain a furlongh for 
Hazleton, who at once put the mill in proper condition and 
started it to work, his main assistant being Abijah Smith 
then living in Milton. But Hazleton was compelled to 
leave the mill and join the regiment when the latter was 
ordered to Quebec, and, like Wolfe, the private soldier 
received a mortal wound on the Plains of Abraham. 

A short interval then took place before another English- 
man by the name of Richard Clarke arrived from New York 
and again set the mill in operation. In a few years Clarke, 
who was an excellent workman, was joined by his son 
George, a young man of about twenty years of age, 
who also proved himself to be a good paper-maker. 
Hazleton's assistant, Abijah Smith, developed into a good 
workman, and continued at the business until of an 
advanced age. 

In 1768 a paper-mill was established in Norwich, Conn., 
by Christopher Leffingwell, who was promised a bounty by 
the Legislature of 2d. per quire on all good writing paper 
and \d. per quire on all printing and common paper ; but 
this subsidy was withdrawn in 1770. 

When the American Revolution commenced, there were 
probably not more than an aggregate of fifty paper-mills in 
all the American colonies ; the produce of these mills was 
inadequate in quantity to supply the home demand, which 
made the price of paper very high. For a long time there 
was a great scarcity of rags, and as but little labor could be 
bestowed upon paper then made, the quality was very infe- 
rior, and these conditions continued until after the adoption 
of the Constitution. 



HISTORY. 47 

While the manufacture of paper was bemg prosecuted 
under such difficulties in the United States, the important 
announcement was made in France that N. L. Robert, a 
machinist connected with Didot's paper-mill at Essonnes, 
had invented a machine for making sheets of paper of very 
large size, even twelve feet wide and fifty feet long. 

On account of the importance of Robert's invention, and 
the great influence which it afterwards exerted in building 
up our paper manufactures, we will here divert from an 
account of the history of paper-making in the United States, 
and follow the history of the Robert's machine. 

On the 18th of January, 1799, the government of France 
granted Mr. N. L. Robert a patent (No. 329) for fifteen 
years, for his invention for making paper by machinery, and 
during the same year a working model of the machine was 
constructed, but its work was not fully satisfactory. But 
the French government, appreciating the usefulness of 
Robert's invention, and realizing that its imperfections 
would be overcome by experience, granted him a bounty of 
8000 francs. The experiments necessary for perfecting the 
machine were both troublesome and expensive, and on 
account of the difficulties in which France was then involved 
it became manifest that the machine could be better perfected 
in England. 

M. Leger Didot, of Essonnes, agreed to purchase the patent 
and model from Robert, and accompanied by John Gamble, 
an Englishman, Didot sailed for England. Some improve- 
ments were made on Robert's model by Didot before leaving 
France ; but on reaching England, Didot was fortunate in 



48 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

securing the aid of a Mr. Bryan Donkin, a man of consider- 
able mechanical skill, and by means of the experiments and 
observations of the trio — Didot, Gamble, and Donkin — the 
invention of Robert was perfected. On April 2, 1801, a 
patent (No. 2487) was granted in England to John Gamble, 
for the improved invention of Robert, the title of the patent 
being "An invention for making paper in single sheets 
without seam or joining, from one to twelve feet and up- 
wards wide, and from one to forty-five feet and upwards in 
length." 

On June 7, 1803, a patent (No. 2708) was granted by 
the English government to John Gamble for " Improve- 
ments and additions to a machine for making paper in single 
sheets without seam or joinings, from one to twelve feet and 
upwards wide, and from one to fifty feet and upwards in 
length," and during the same year the first machine for 
making paper by machinery was successfully put in opera- 
tion at Frogmore, England. 

During the next year, 1804, the second paper-making 
machine was put in operation at Two Waters, England. 

In 1804 Messrs. Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased 
the interest of Didot and Gamble in the improved Robert 
machine. Henry Fourdrinier on July 24, 1806, was granted 
a patent (No. 2951) for "The method of making a machine 
for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length, laid and 
wove ' with separate moulds.'" On August 14, 1807, an 
Act of Parliament was obtained for prolonging the term of 
certain letters patent assigned to Henry Fourdrinier and 
Sealy Fourdrinier for the invention of making paper by 



HISTORY. 



49 



means of machinery, and the machine described by John 
Gamble in the specifications of his patents (Nos. 2487 and 
2708), with any other improvements added to it, was also 
fully described by diagrams. 

During the next year, 1808, John Gamble assigned to 
the Messrs. Fourdrinier all his right in the patents as 
extended by the Act of Parliament, thus making the latter 
gentlemen the sole proprietors of the patent for the only 
satisfactory paper-making machine in England, and in this 
manner the machine invented by Robert, and improved by 
Gamble, assisted by the skill of Didot and Donkin, came to 
be and continues to be known as the Fourdrinier machine. 

But let us now return to the history of paper-making in 
our own country. 

After the adoption of the Constitution a stimulus was 
given to manufactures, and, although rags continued to be 
scarce for many years, we learn from estimates of Isaiah 
Thomas that there were in 1810 about one hundred and 
eighty-five paper-mills in the United States, distributed and 
producing as follows : — 









No. of mills. 


Value of products. 


Pennsylvania 60 


$626,749 


Massachusetts . 








38 


290,951 


New York 








28 


233,36'8 


Connecticut 








17 


82,188 


Vermont 








9 


70,050 


New Hampshire 








7 


42,450 


Kentucky 








6 


18,600 


Rhode Island . 








4 


52,297 


Delaware 








4 


75,000 


Virginia 








4 


22,400 


Tennessee 








4 


15,500 


Maryland 








3 


77,515 


North Carolina 








1 


6,000 


4 













50 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

But as New Jersey is credited by Tench Coxe with pro- 
ducing paper in 1810 to the vakie of $49,750, Maine with 
$16,000, and Ohio with |10,000, it is probable that Mr. 
Thomas did not gather all the paper-mills into his estimate. 
The total value of all the paper produced in the United 
States in 1810 was therefore about $1,689,718. 

On account of the increased consumption of rags used for 
the manufacture of paper, the United States commenced in 
1810 to import rags from Europe. 

It does not appear of record that our American inventors 
gave any great amount of attention prior to the war of 1812 
to the matter of making paper by machinery. 

By Act of Congress of April 10, 1790, the first American 
patent system was founded; but during the years from 1790 
to 1812, our inventors confined themselves almost wholly to 
agricultural and commercial objects. Implements for tilling 
the soil and converting its products and machinery for navi- 
gation attracted most attention. 

The war of 1812, however, forced our people to attempt 
production in many branches of manufacture and industry 
heretofore almost wholly uncultivated, and the result was 
the most remarkable development of human ingenuity ever 
known to any age or country. It is a source of great regret 
that no well-preserved history of American inventions dating 
from this time is in existence, and that no classified list of 
models which were in the Patent Ofiice at the time of the fire 
in 1836 can be obtained. The earliest date that can be 
reached is January 21, 1823, and that is only partially com- 
plete. 



HISTORY. 51 

After the fire in 1836, the United States government 
advertised for the patents which had been issned prior to the 
conflagration, and in this way some copies of the earlier 
patents were received. 

The records of the United States Patent Office show that 
patents for manufacturing paper were issued to J. Biddis, 
May 31, 1794; C. Austin, December 14, 1798; and R. R, 
Livingston, October 28, 1799. 

T. Langstroth was granted a patent for a paper-mill May 
1, 1804; J. Tatterson, Southampton, Long Island, N. Y., 
was granted a patent on December 7, 1805, for a machine 
for preparing and hacking tow for paper ; and a patent for 
a paper-making machine was issued May 8, 1807, to C. Kin- 
sey, of Essex, N. J. But there are no specifications or other 
descriptions of any of these early patents now extant. 

In 1809, Mr. John Dickinson invented and patented in 
England a new system of making paper in a continuous 
sheet by machinery ; the apparatus consisted of a cylinder the 
periphery of which was covered with a metallic cloth properly 
supported ; this cylinder revolved in a vat kept filled with 
pulp, in which the cylinder was half immersed. By a special 
system of suction a partial vacuum was created in the cylin- 
der, thus causing the pulp to adhere to the metallic cloth and 
thereby forming the sheet, which being immediately detached 
passed upon a cylinder covered with felting. 

Later, in 1826, Mr. Canson applied suction pumps to the 
Fourdrinier machine, causing a suction underneath the me- 
tallic cloth upon which the sheet is formed, uniting thereby 



52 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

to that machine the only advantage of the Dickinson inven- 
tion. 

While the Fourdrinier and Dickinson machines were 
being perfected in England, American inventors were also 
working in the same line, and in corroboration of this state- 
ment we have the paper-making machine, which, on Decem- 
ber 24, 1816, was patented by Thomas Gilpin, of Philadel- 
phia, and, which, in 1817, was pnt in operation in the paper 
manufactory of Messrs. Thomas Gilpin & Co., their mill 
being located on the Brandywine. This machine was doubt- 
less suggested by Dickinson's invention, and was what is 
known as a cylinder machine, and it is stated that it would 
do the work of ten paper vats, and deliver a sheet of greater 
width than any other made in America, and of an indefinite 
length. 

The war with England gave a great impulse to all 
branches of manufactures, and Thomas Gilpin covered the 
water-power on the Brandywine with large structures for 
the manufacture of wool and cotton, in addition to those 
for the manufacture of paper, which continued in their 
previous perfection. 

The great reverses which, in a few years, befell the 
manufacturing establishments of the United States, pro- 
duced disastrous effects on these large works, and under 
the circumstances it seemed expedient to suspend them 
until better times should come. Thomas Gilpin determined 
in this emergency to augment the paper works. So far, in 
the United States, all such works had been conducted upon 
the ancient system ; but, in England, considerable advances 



HISTORY. 53 

had been made by the mtroduction of machinery, which 
produced paper in an endless sheet. Every pubUcation on 
this subject had been carefully noted by Mr. Gilpin, and 
availing himself of all the published drawings explaining the 
parts of the new machinery, he became convinced, by care- 
ful study, that he could construct a machine which, if not 
exactly similar to, or as perfect as those of England, would 
enable him to produce paper of an indefinite length, and of 
a merchantable quality. 

This effort on the part of Mr. Gilpin was attended with 
almost infinite trouble, but success crowned his efforts, and 
in February, 1817, he sent to Philadelphia paper cut from 
a continuous sheet. 

Poulson's 'Daily Advertiser,' a leading gazette of the 
city, was the first publication printed upon this paper. 

The enterprising firm of Mathew Carey & Sons, then the 
largest publishing house in the United States, were preparing 
an edition of the ' Historical Atlas of Lavoisne,' and the 
work appeared in 1821, printed on paper made by Thomas 
Gilpin's machine. 

Mr. Gilpin was greatly encouraged by the success of his 
experiment, and he continued for several years after the 
machine was set to work in 1817 to make successive im- 
provements, until it altogether superseded his other machin- 
ery, and promised a result not less valuable to the arts than 
remunerative to Mr. Gilpin for the years of anxious labor 
that the work had cost, and the large expense which he 
had incurred in perfecting the machine. 

But Mr. Gilpin, like many other pioneers, was not des- 



54 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tined to enjoy his well-earned reward, for, in the spring of 
1822, the paper-mill and the valuable machinery were de- 
stroyed during a flood of unprecedented violence and mag- 
nitude, which occurred on the Brandywine. 

The thousands of dollars which had been expended by 
Mr. Gilpin in perfecting his machine was a small loss com- 
pared with the study of many years, the numerous experi- 
ments, and the many mechanical improvements which Had 
in a few hours been rendered abortive by the fury of the 
flood. 

The failure of Congress to impose a suitable tariff on 
paper was a great drawback to the development of that 
industry in the United States after the close of the war of 1812. 

The heavy importations of paper from Europe, which 
commenced soon after the war was ended, and the greatly 
depressed financial condition of the country, caused the 
almost total destruction of paper manufacture in the States 
of Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

By Act of Congress of April 26, 1816, the rate of duty 
on paper imported into the United States after June 30, 
1816, was to be fixed at thirty per cent.; but in the year 
1820 we find the paper-makers of the last named States with 
those of Maryland earnestly petitioning Congress for an 
increased tariff oh paper, the paper-makers of Pennsylvania 
and Delaware stating that in their district there were 
seventy paper-mills with ninety-five vats in operation until 
the importations after the war, since which they had been 
reduced to seventeen vats. 

Congress itself was at this time using and continued for 



HISTORY. 



55 



some years afterwards to use paper imported from England 
and from France, but, under the continued criticism of the 
newspapers, paper made in the United States came finally 
to be used by Congress. 

We have seen on page 50 that the value of the paper 
produced in the United States in 1810 was $1,689,718. In 
1820 the value was estimated at $3,000,000, thus showing 
a great increase in spite of the large importations of paper 
from Europe, and the widespread and deeply seated period 
of bankruptcy which had intervened. 

The period from 1820 to 1830 was not • remarkable for 
progress in paper-making, either in the United States or in 
England. 

The following list of patents will convey an idea of what 
was accomplished in this line in the United States from 1820 
to 1830 :— 



Bate. 
May 14, 1823. 
Sept. 1, 1822. 
Sept. 8, 1824. 
April 12, 1826. 

Feb. 28, 1827. 

April 15, 1828. 

May 22, 1838. 

July 17, 1828. 
Sept. 11,1828. 
Oct. 30, 1828. 
Oct. 20, 1828. 
Jan. 13, 1829. 



Name. 
J. Ames, 
J. Ames, 
I. Burbank, 
G. Burbank, 

J. White and L. 

Gale, 
E. H. Collier, 

W. Mao-aw, 



Residence. 
Springfield, Mass. 
Springfield, Mass. 
Worcester, Mass. 
Worcester, Mass. 

Newburg, Vermont. 

Plymouth Co., Mass. 

Meadville, Pa. 



M. Haddock, New York, N. Y. 

M. T. Beach, Springfield, Mass. 

A.&N. A. Sprague, Fredonia, N. Y. 

M. Hunting, Watertown, Mass. 

W. Debit, East Hartford, Conn. 



Nature of Invention. 

Paper-making machine. 

Paper sizing. 

Manufacturing paper. 

Paper-making machi- 
nery. 

Finishing paper. 

Making paper from 
"Ulvamarina." 

Preparing hay, straw 
and other substances 
for making j^aper. 

Machine for making pa- 
per in the sheet. 

Machine for cutting rags 
for paper. 

Manufacturing paper 
from corn husks. 

Top press roller for 
making paper. 

Machinery for cleaning 
rags for paper-mills. 



56 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Date. 




Name. 


Residence. 


Nature of Invention. 


Feb. 7, 1829. 


J. 


W. Cooper, 


"Washingtown Twp., 
Pa. 


White paper from rags, 
straw, and corn husks. 


April 18, 1829. 


I. 


Sanderson, 


Milton, Mass. 


Cylinder paper machine. 


May 4, 1829. 


R. 


. Fairchild, 


Trumbull, Conn. 


Machine for manufactur- 
ing paper. 


Sept. 10, 1829. 


L. 


Bomeisler, 


Philadelphia, Pa. 


Manufacture of white 
paper from straw. 



Efforts were made during the decade from 1820 to 1880 
to introduce paper-making machinery from England ; but 
on account of the high price few orders were given for it. 

Cylinder machines of American invention met with some 
encouragement in the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
and Pennsylvania after the year 1822, but ibr a long time 
they were very crude, and were used mostly for the lower 
grades of paper. 

In 1831 it was estimated that the quantity of paper 
manufactured in the United States during the year 1830 
amounted to more than seven millions of dollars. 

From 1830 to 1840 there were no remarkable advances 
made in the manufacture of paper in the United States. 
Machinery was more commonly employed, tlie use of bleach- 
ing and other chemicals came to be better understood, and 
with the advances in its manufacture the price of paper 
declined, but its quality was better and the importations of 
paper gradually diminished while the exports increased. 

In 1842 a convention of paper-makers was held in New 
York City, and an estimate then made, placed the value of 
the machinery and paper-mill property in the United States 
at $16,000,000, and the value of the paper manufactured at 
$15,000,000 per annum. 

But there is great difference between the above estimate 



HISTORY. 57 

and the census report for 1840, which places the value of all 
the paper manufactured in the United States during the year 
1840 at 15,641,495 and the. capital invested at $4,745,239. 

During the whole of the decade from 1840 to 1850 the 
importations of paper constantly increased while the exports 
did not average more than one-fourth of the imports of that 
material. 

In 1844 there was patented in Germany a machine for 
grinding wood for the manufacture of pulp. The inventor, 
Keller, sold the patent to the firm of Henry Voelter's Sons, 
who afterwards used the pulp in the manufacture of news 
paper. 

The Voelters made numerous improvements in Keller's 
invention, and a quarter of a century after it was patented 
in Germany by Keller this wood-pulp machine was destined 
to play an important part in the United States, when in 
response to the demand for the rapid printing of daily news- 
papers the web press was to come into use. The Voelters, 
Christian and Henry, made numerous improvements in the 
machine, Christian Voelter obtaining patents in various 
European countries, in France even as early as April 11, 
1847. Henry Voelter patented his improvement on the 
pulp machine in Wurtemburg, Germany, August 29, 1856, 
and in the United States, August 10, 1858. 

Pearson C. Chenney, ex-governor of New Hampshire, has 
described the difficulty of introducing paper made from 
wood. In his testimony before the Senate Committee on 
Education and Labor, Mr. Chenney said : " When Mr. 
Russell built his mill at Franklin, those of us who were 



^ 



58 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

engaged in the manufacture of paper and had no know- 
ledge of what could be done with wood supposed that his 
enterprise would ruin him. We supposed that his material 
would be more like sawdust or clay. Mr. liussell com- 
pleted his mills at Franklin, but after manufacturing the 
pulp, he could not find a paper manufacturer who would 
buy a pound of his wood pulp, because they did not believe 
in it — they had no faith in it, and he was compelled to buy 
a paper-mill in order to make a good test of it, which he 
did in Franklin, right beside his pulp-mill, and made the 
test, and a successful test, and showed a very good paper. 
After the paper was made he found great difficulty in selling 
it. The printers felt that they could not use it; they were 
afraid to use paper made from raw wood ; they were afraid 
it would injure their type or ruin it, and they declined to 
use it. His selling agents were the firm of Rice & Kendall, 
of Boston. They resorted to all sorts of devices to get this 
paper used, but they were finally obliged to resort to some- 
thing that did not appear on the surface, but seemed to be 
necessg,ry in order to secure the introduction of the paper 
into use. They had an order from, I think the ' Boston 
Herald' for about 500 reams of paper. They were supplying 
that journal regularly from month to month, and, without 
saying anything as to the nature of the paper, they sent 
paper made from this wood ; the paper passed, and was used, 
and when the next order came and they delivered the regu- 
lar paper which they had been in the habit of sending before, 
the ' Herald' people came to Mr. Rice in some displeasure, 
and asked him why he could not send such paper as he had 



HISTORY. 59 

sent the month previous. He told them that he could do so 
if they preferred it, and they said they did. They said that 
it worked very well — very much better than the other. So 
he told them that the next order they gave him he would send 
some of that paper. The next month he again delivered 
500 reams of the wood paper, and that was used and gave 
great satisfaction. But I think they were using it for six 
months before they knew that it was wood paper. That 
established the use of that class of paper, and there was no 
trouble after that in selling it. The fact is that it absorbs 
the ink better and works much better for printing than 
other paper does, and works particularly well in rapid 
presses." 

If we compare the methods of manufacturing paper in the 
United States during the decade from 1840 to 1850 with 
those in use at the present time, the result will, of course, 
in many respects be greatly in favor of the present methods. 
But as the plants and products were small, wages low, and 
the margins of profits large, it was easier in those days to do 
business with a small capital than it now is with a large 
one. 

Forty years ago the present method of boiling rags in 
rotary boilers under pressure was not employed, the boiling 
was then done in open kettles or tubs. Instead of working 
different grades of stock separately and uniting them in the 
beating engines as required, hard and soft stock was in those 
days commonly boiled and worked together; the proportions 
varying according to thickness, strength, and quality desired. 
The washing and beating engines then employed were small, 



60 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

averaging from about one-fourth to one-eighth the size of 
those now used. Light, narrow, slow-running cyhnder 
machines were almost exclusively employed. There was 
still considerable waste in the use of chemicals and loss in 
labor. Elevators from drainers to engine-room and from 
the machine-room to the loft were unknown, the paper 
being carried to the loft on men's shoulders. 

The almost general employment of the Fourdrinier 
machine in Europe and the numerous improvements which 
were made in paper-making in England from 1840 to 1850, 
added to the enforcement in 1843 of a new duty on rags, 
operated to check our exports and increase our imports of 
paper, and it is questionable whether any material advance 
was made in the quantity of paper manufactured in the 
United States during the last-named decade over that from 
1830 to 1840. 

The year 1850 opened with a bright prospect for all 
branches of trade in the United States ; the new empire 
which was arising and following the discovery of gold on 
the Pacific coast, and the new markets abroad which were 
being opened for our grain and cotton acted as powerful 
stimulants to many branches of manufacture. 

It was not long before many of the paper-makers, espe- 
cially in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut, were 
compelled to enlarge their capacities, and the Fourdrinier 
machine came into more common use. Many old and 
narrow cylinder machines were removed and superseded by 
new and wider ones having steam dryers and other improve- 
ments. Larger beaters and washers were also introduced ; 



HISTORY. 61 

but the demand for paper was greatly in excess of the 
supply, and notwithstanding the continued introduction of 
improved machinery the price of paper constantly advanced 
luitil about 1855. 

But on account of the large amount of capital which had 
been drawn into the business of paper-making the effects of 
competition were severely felt from 1855 to 1860, and the 
profits, especially on fine papers, were reduced below the 
average profits of other branches of manufacture ; an over- 
stocked market soon played sad havoc with prices, and the 
final result was that many mills were compelled to shut 
down. 

The census of 1860 showed that the State of Massachu- 
setts alone in that year produced paper to the value of 
$5,968,469 ; New York returned paper to the value of 
$3,516,276 ; Connecticut, $2,528,759 ; and Pennsylvania, 
$1,785,900. 

The decade from 1860 to 1870 was a memorable one in 
the annals of paper-making in the United States. The 
enormous rise in the price of cotton which immediately 
followed the outbreak of the civil war caused paper to be 
used for many purposes for which cotton had formerly been 
employed. Paper twine, paper collars, cuffs, and shirt 
fronts, are some of the new applications of paper which at 
once consumed very large quantities of the material. 

Early in 1862 the price of ordinary news paper ruled at 
8 cents per pound, but before ten months of the year had 
passed the price was increased to 17 cents, and No. 1 print- 
ing was 30 cents, while all writing papers were 40 cents. 



62 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The prices of paper continued to increase, until in 1864 
news paper sold at 28 cents per pound, and fine book paper 
at 45 cents. But in January, 1865, the price of common 
news pamper, straw, etc., in New York City ranged from 20 
to 22 cents per pound, and the price of good news paper, 
rag, was from 22 to 25 cents ; fair white book was 25 to 28 
cents, and extra book from 28 to 32 cents. The average 
price for first class writing, folded, during 1865, was 52J 
cents per pound; superfine writing, folded, 50 cents; super- 
fine flats, 45 cents. Manilla wrapping paper ranged from 
18 to 21 cents per pound during 1865. 

From 1865 to 1870 the price of all kinds of paper con- 
tinued rapidly to decline, and from 1870 to 1885 there 
remains but little to notice, excepting the introduction of 
wood pulp into paper-making, and the enormous consump- 
tion of straw, etc., for news paper. 

For Manilla paper, jute butts and threads, coming princi- 
pally from India, but partly from Dundee, are largely used 
in the United States ; old cordage, which is chiefly supplied 
by the shipping yards of England, is also largely employed 
in the manufacture of Manilla paper. 

During the twenty years from 1865 to 1885 the largest 
number of patents relating to paper making were issued by 
the government of the United States that has ever been 
known in the history of any country. 

The invention and employment of a large number of 
mechanical appliances and chemical processes have done 
much to stimulate and cheapen paper production, especially 
during the fifteen years just past (1870-1885), and many 



HISTORY. 63 

manufacturers who have failed to keep fully abreast of the 
times have found their business absorbed by more enterpris- 
ing firms. Such results are only natural, but it is even 
more important in the future than in the past tli^t small 
manufacturers should be fully informed regarding all the 
improvements in the art, for, under the enormous output of 
paper from many of the large mills in this country, it is 
becoming a very serious question whether even mills of 
moderate capacity can afford to manufacture paper on the 
small margin of profit which produces a meagre but satisfac- 
tory dividend to the wealthy owners of the capital stock in 
the larger mills. 

However, such questions as the latter are matters which 
do not come within the province of this work, and" we shall, 
therefore, not further discuss them in connection with the 
history of paper-making, but proceed in the following chap- 
ters to describe the various materials, processes, and appli- 
ances employed in the modern methods of manufacturing 
paper. , , 



64 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



CHAPTER II. 

MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER — MICROGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE 

MANUFACTURE OF PAPER CELLULOSE DETERMINATION OF 

CELLULOSE RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 

During the past century the consumption of paper has 
increased in a much greater ratio than the supply of rags, 
and on account of the consequent advance in the price of 
the latter, numerous other raw materials have been em- 
ployed in the manufacture of the lower grades of paper. 

Cotton and linen rags continue to be employed for the 
higher class of writing and record papers; but the pulps 
for news and cheap book papers are almost wholly pro- 
duced from wood, straw, esparto, corn stock, old papers, etc. 

It would be almost an impossibility to enumerate all the 
materials which have been used for the manufacture of pnlp 
for paper ; but in the following list the author has arranged 
in alphabetical order all those paper-making substances 
concerning which he has acquired any information, through 
dili£J:ent research : — 



^&" 



Materials Used for Paper. 



Abaca, same as Manilla hemp. 

iOchra, 
Okra, 
Okro. 
Abutilon avicennce. 



Ahutilon Bedfordianum, Hollyhock- 
tree. 
Abutilon Tndicum, Indian mallow. 
Abutilon mollis, Hollyhock-tree. 
Soft-leaved abutilon. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



65 



Ahutilon sirictum, Hollyhock-tree. 

Vined lantern ilower. 
Abrasive cloth and paper, waste. 
Acacia. 

Acacia, Rohinia Pseud- Acacia, v/ood of. 
Adam's Needle, Hibiscus lieterophyllus. 

Sparmannia Africana. 

Yucca gloriosa. 
Adamsonia digitala, Baobab. 
JEsculus hippocastanum, Horse-chest- 
nut, Avood of. 
Agave Americana, Maj^uey. 
Agave, Agave Americana. 
Agave Americana, leaves of. 
Agave, Fourcroya giganiea. 
Agave Mexicana, Maguey. 
Agrostis spica vend, Bent-grass. 
Ailanthus, bark of. 
Alder, Alnus glidinosa, wood of. 
Alder-buckthorn. Same as Black alder. 
Alfa fibre. 
Alga marina. 
Algce, fresh- water. 
Alnus glutinosa, Alder, wood of. 
Aloe fibre. 
Aloes. 

Alpina magnifica, Mulberry. 
Alsimastrum. 
Althea. 

AltJiea frutex, Cockle-burr. 
Ambaree. 
Amianthus. 
Amoraum. 
Anacharsis, 
Ananassa. 

Ananassa Saliva, Pineapple. 
Animal excrement. 
Animal substances. 
Anona reticidator, Nona. 
AnonacecB. 
Apocinece. 
Aporentype. 
Aralia papyrifera. 
Arrache. 



Arrowroot, refuse stems and leaves of. 

Artemisia bark. 

Artemisia wood. 

Artichoke. 

Artiplex. 

Artocarpecc. 

Ariinda conspicua, Plume-grass- 

Arundinaria macrosperma. 

Asclepiadice. 

Asclepias. 

Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, wood of. 

Asparagus stalks. Asparagus officinalis. 

Aspen-tree, Populus trevnda, wood of. 

Asthoder. 

Avena Saliva, Oats. 

Bagasse. 

Bagasse refuse. 

Bagging, old. 

Baldengera Arundinacia, Ftomenteau. 

Bamboo, Bamhusa Ihonarsu, wood of. 

Bamhusa arundinacea. 

Bambusa thornarsu. Bamboo. 

Bambusa vulgaris, Bamboo. 

Inner bark of. 

Leaves of. 

Young shoots of. 
Banana fibre and leaves. 
BanMnia racemosa. 
Baobab, Adamsonia digitala. 

Heliconia gigantea. 

Strelitzia regina. 
Bark of various kinds of woods, includ- 
ing resinous, etc. 
Bark of coniferous trees after extracting 

the resin. 
Barley straw. 
Barriala, Sida rlwmboida. 
Bass wood. 

Bastard Cedar or Guazuma. 
Bean leaves and vines. 
Beans. 
Beech, Fagus sylvalica, weed of. 



66 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Beet and mangel-wurzel root. 

Beets. 

Begonacece. 

Bent-grass, Agrosds spica-venti. 

Berries. 

Betula alba, Birch, wood of. 

Betula Bhojpattra, Birch. 

Bhenda, Hibiscus esculentus. 

Bhurja (Birch), Betula Bhojpaltra. 

Birch, Betula alba, wood of, 

Betula Bhojpattra. 
Black alder, Rhamnus Fragitla,vfood of. 
Blackberries. 
Black-moss, Tillandsia. 
Black reed (cutting-grass), Cladium 

radula. 
Blue cabbage stalks. 
Blue-flag, Enodivm cceruleum. 
Blue- grass, Agrostis spica-venti, 
Bmhmeria. 

BceJimeria vivea, China-grass (Rhea). 
Bombax. 

Bon-dhenras, Hibiscus Jiculneus. 
Bottle-tree, Sterculia diversifulia. 

Sterculia foetida. 

Sterculia lucida. 

Sterculia repestris. 
Bowstring hemp, Sanseviera Zeylanica. 
Brachycliilon acerifolium, Flame-tree. 
Bracken. 
Brake. 
Bran. 

Brank. Same as Buckwheat. 
Brazil-wood. 
Brazilian-grass. 
Brewery refuse. 
Bromeliaceoi. 

Bromelia Pinguin, Pineapple. 
Bromelia sylvestris, Pineapple. 
Broom. 
Broomcorn. 
Broom-leaved tea-tree, Melaleuca 

genislifolia. 
Broom swamp. 



Broussonetia. 

Broussonetia papyrifera, Paper mul- 
berry. 
Brown-grass. 
Brown-hemp (see Sunn). 
Bi'von. 

Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum. 
Bulrush, Tyylia angustifolia. 
Burdock. 
Burlap bagging. 

Button-tree, 1 o -ni ^ 

' \ Same as Plane-tree. 
Buttonwood. J 

Cabbage. 

Cabbage stumps. 

Cactus. 

Calamus verus, Rattan, Avood of. 

Calotropis gigantea, Yucca. 

Mudar. 

Camellna, Camelina sativa. 

Canadian poplar, Pojmlus Canadensis, 

wood of. 

Canary-grass, Phalaris canariensis. 

Canes. 

Cannabis sativa, Kangra hemp. 

Canvas, old. 

Cardamom, refuse stems and leaves of. 

Carex, Sedge. 

y-, ( Sedije-grass. 

Carex appressa, < '^ ° 
( Stems of. 

iGallingall 
rush. 
Stems of. 
Carludovica jyalmata, Panama hat 
straw. 



s of. 



^ ^ [ Jaggery palm. 

Laryota urens, \ -, " -, ■, 

{ Stems and leave 

Catkins of black poplar. 

Cat-tail, Typlia latifoUa. 

Cecropia. 

Cedar-wood. 

Cenodruli. 

Cereal and leguminous plants, straws of. 

Chaff. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



67 



China-grass (Rhea fibre), Bcehmeria 
nivea. 

Chinese sugar-cane. 

Cissus family. 

Claudium raclula^ Black reed. 

Clematis bark and wood. 

Clematite. 

Cloth, refuse. 

Clover. 

Club rush, Scirpiis fluviatilis. 

Coast sword-grass, Lepidosperma ela- 
tiiis. 

Cockle-burr, A Ithea frutex. 

Cocoons, silk, refuse of. 

Coir. 

Colocasia antiquorum, Sago-palm. 

Coltsfoot. 

Coinmersonia Fraseri, Lye-plant. 

C9mmon rush, Juncus paucijiorus. 

Common tea-tree, JMelalencu ericifolia. 

CompositCE. 

Conferva. 

Conferva sp., Swamp moss, stems and 
leaves of. 

Coniferce, leaves of. 

Coniferous trees, bark of, after extract- 
ing the resin. 

Convolvidacece. 

Coral moss. 

Corclwrus olitorius, Jute. 

Cordage. 

Cord-grass, Sparlina cynosuroides. 

Cordia JMyxa, Mulberry. 

Cordyline indivisa, Tall palm-lily, stems 
and leaves of. 

Cork. 

Corn cobs, husks, leaves, and stalks. 

Corylus Avellana, Filbert- tree, wood of. 

Cow-itch- tree, Lagunaria Pater sonii. 

Colon du peuplier. 

Cotton. 

Cotton plant, fibre of the. 

Bark of the root and bark of 
the stalk, pith, seed, and 



stalks of the different spe- 
cies. 
Cotton rags. 
Cotton-seed waste. 
Cotton waste. 

Couch-grass. Same as Dog-grass. 
Crotalaria juncea, Sunn. 
Crotalaria tenidfolia, Jubbulporehemp, 
Cruciferoi. 
Cryptogams. 
Cucumbers. 
Cucurhitacecs. 

Cudweed. Same as Everlasting. 
Cupheoi. 
Currijong, Dais cotinifolia. 

Pimellea axijiora. 

Pittosporum corn ifolium. 
Cyperus dices, Diss. 
Cyperiis lucidus, Galingale rush, stems 

and leaves of. 
Cyperus tegetum. 
Cyperus sp., stems and leaves of. 
Cyprian asbestos. 

Dais continifoiia, Currijong. 

Danchi, Seshanio aculeata. 

Daphne. 

Daphne cannabina. 

Daphne oleoides. 

Datura stramonium, Stramonium. 

Decayed wood. 

Dhoncha, Sesbania aculeata. 

Diannella latifolia, Sea-coast rush, 

stems and leaves of. 
Diannella longifolia. 
Dismodium argenteum. 
Diss, Cyperus dives. 
Dog-grass, Triticum repens. 
Dog- wheat. Same as Dog-grass. 
Dolbega Natalensis, Lye-plant, 
Doryanthes excelsa, Spear lily. 
Dracaena Draco, Dragon-tree. 
Dungar. 
Durst. 

\ 



6S 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Dust. 

Dwarf-piilm. 

Dyer's wood, stalks of. 

Dye-woods, spent. 

Earth-moss. 

Edgewortlna Gardneri. 

Ehrharta tenacissima, Wire-grass, 

stems of. 

Ejoo. 

Elder. 

Elm, Ulmiis campesfris, wood of. 

Enndium cceritleum, Blue-tlag. 

Emery cloth, 1 

•' > waste. 

Emery paper, ) 

EricacecE. 

Erica vidgnris, Heath, wood of. 

Ertphoriim cannahinvm. 

Erigeron. 

Erytlirnxylon gutlaferece. 

Eselepias, down of. 

Esparto, all varieties of. 

Eucalyptus Ji'sxilis, Messmate. 

Eucalyptus ohliqua, Stringy bark. 

EupJiorbiacca;. 

Everlasting, Gnaphalium. 

Exerement of animals. 

Fagopyrum csculerdum, Buckwheat. 

Fenequen. 

Ferns. 

Few-tlowered rush, Juncus paurijl.orvs. 

Fibres, various. 

Fibrila. 

Eicus speciosa, Fig-tree. 

Filbert-tree, Corylus Avellana, wood 

of. 
Fir-cones. 

Fir, Pinus sylvcstris, wood of. 
Fishing nets, old. 
Flame-tree, Brachychiton acerifolium. 

Sterculia acerifolia. 
Flax, hemp, etc. 



Floss silk. 

Fourcroya gigantea, Agave. 

Giant lily (Agave), stems and 
leaves of. 
Fourdrini. 

Fraxinus excelsior, Ash, wood of. 
Frog-spittle. 

Ftomenteau, Baldenegra Arundinacea. 
Fucus vesicidosus, Varec. 

GaJinia psiitacorum, Sword-grass. 

T«r. Erythrocarputn, stems 
and leaves of. 
Galega officinalis. 
Galega orientalis. 
Galingale. 
Galingale rush, Carex pseudo-cyperus . 

Cyjieriis lucidus. 
Geld, Marsdenia tenacissima. 
Genista. 

After extracting dye. 
Giant nettle, Urticati divaricata. 
Ginger, refuse stems and leaves of. 
Glylieria aquatica, Marsh-grass. Called 

also Reed-grass. 
Gnaphalium. 

Gombo, Hibiscus syriacus. 
Gossypium. 
Grains. 

Grape-vine, inner and outer bark. 
Grape-vines. 
Grass-cloth plant (Chinese), Bcehmeria 

nivea. 
Grasses. 
Grass, Spanish. 

Tule. 
Grewia oppositifolia . 
Guazuma or Bastard cedar. 
Guazuma itlmifolia, Urania. 
Gunny. 

Gunn}' bags, old. 
Gun-cotton. 
Gutta-percha. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



69 



Gynerium argenteum^ Pampas-grass, 
stems and leaves of. 



Hair. 

Haifa, Lignum Spatium. 

Hawthorne, bark of. 

Hay. 

Heath, Erica vulgaris^ wood of. 

Heather. 

Heliconia gigantea, Baobab. 

Hemp. 

Hemp-fibres. 

Hemp, flax, etc. 

Hemp, jute, dressed. Yield 

H, , , pel- cent, 

erbaceous plants — ^^ ^^^.^ 

Asparagus stalks. Asparagus 

officinalis .... 33.56 

Banana, Musa ensete . . 31.81 

Barley, Hordetmi vulgare . . 36.21 

Bent-grass, Agrostis spica-venti 45.82 

Blue-flag, Enodium coeruleum 40.07 
Buckwheat, Fagopyrum escu- 

lentum 30.60 

Camelina, Camelina sativa . 29.16 
Canary-grass, Phalaris Cana- 

riensis ..... 44.16 

■ Canua, Caiina .... 20.29 

Dog-grass, Triticmn repens . 28.38 
Ftomenteau, BaUlengera Arun- 

dinacia ..... 46.17 

Giant nettle, Urtica divaricata 21.66 

Hop, Humulus Lupidus . . 34.84 

Maize, Zea Hays . . . 40.24 

Marsh-grass, Glyceria aquatica 38.80 

'M.aYsh.vnsh, Scirpus jjalustris . 41.70 

Mateva, Hyphoene Thehaica . 26.08 
New Zealand flax, Phormium 

tenax 33.71 

Oats, Avena sativa . . . 35.08 

Reed, Phragmites vidgari^ . 41.57 

Rye, Secale cereale . . . 44.13 

Sedge, Carex .... 33.86 
Sugar-cane, Saccharuin offici- 

naruin ..... 29.15 

Wheat, Triticmn sativum . . 43.14 
Wild broom, Spartium scopa- 

rium . . . . . 33.43 



Hibiscus arboreus, Mohant-tree. 
Hibiscus cannabinus, Meshta. 
Hibiscus esculentus, Bhendi. 
Hibiscus fibre. 

Hibiscus Jiculneus, Bon-dheuras. 
Hibiscus Jieterophyllus, Adam's Needle. 
Hibiscus Moscheutos. 
Hibiscus miitabilis, Stolpoddo. 
Hibiscus Palustris. 
Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis, Joba. 
Hibiscus Sabdariff'a, Meshta. 

Reselle. 
Hibiscus splendens, Hollyhock-tree. 
Hides. 

Hollyhock-tree, Abutilon Bcdfordia- 
num. 

Abutilon mollis. 

Abutilon striatum. 

Abutilon venosum. 

Hibiscus splendens. 
Hop bark. 
Hop-bind. 

Hop-plant, Humulus Lupulus. 
Hops. 
Hop vines. 

Hordeum murinum, Rye-grass. 
Hordeum vulgare, Barley. 
Hornets' nests. 
Horse-chestnut, JEsculus Hippocas- 

tanum, wood of. 
Horse-chestnut leaves. 
Horse-radish. 

Humulus Lupulus, Hop-plant. 
Hydrangea sp. 
Hgphcene Thebaica, Mateva, 

Ife-tree, Sanseviera Zeylanica. 

Immortelle, same as Everlastino;. 

Indian-corn husks. 

Indian mallow, Abutilon Indicum. 

India-rubber fibre. 

Indigo. 

Imperfections (waste papers). 

Iris. 



TJIE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



T J 7 ( River rush, 

Jsolepus nodosa, < 

I Stems of. 

Italian poplar, Populus Ilalica, wood of. 

Ivory. 

Ivory shavings. 

Ixora cimeifolia, Mulberry. 



Jaggery palm, Cari/ota urens. 

Joba, Hibiscus Rosas inensis. 

Jubbulporehemp, Crotalaria tenuifoUa. 

Jueca, Yucca. 

Juncaceee. 

Junciis Gesneri. 

Juncus maritimus, Sea-coast rush. 

Stems and leaves of. 
Juncus I'XtiiciJlorus, Common rush. 

Stems of. 
Juncus vaginatus, Small sheathed rush. 

Stems and leaves of. 
Juniper. 
Jute butts. 
Jute canvas. 

Jute, CorcliOTus olitorius. 
Jute rags. 
Jute I'ejeetions. 
Jute rope. 
Jute sackcloth. 

Kangra hemp. 

Killed paper-stock. 

Knot-grass. Same as Dog-grass. 

Lace from aloe fibre. 

Lagunaria Patersonn, Cow-itch-tree. 

Laporiia gigus, Tree nettle. 

Leather. 

Leather cuttings and skivings. 

Leaves. 

Leaves of trees. 

Withered. 
Leguminous plants. 

Leguminous and cereal plants, stems of. 
Lentils. 



Lepidosperma elalius, 



r Coast sword- 
grass 
Sword-grass. 
Tall sword- 
grass, leaves 
and stems of. 
Lepidosperma JJextiosa, Slender sword- 
grass. 
Lepidosperma gladiata, Coast sword- 
rush, stems and leaves of. 
LibitacB. 

Libertia formosa. 
Lichens. 

Ligneous meal (Wood-flour pulp). 
Lignum Spariium, Haifa, 
Liliacece. 

Lily of the valley leaves. 
Lily roots. 
Lily stalks. 

T • , f y'ilia EiiTopcea, wood of. 

Lime-tree, ■{ -' ' 

i Bark of the. 

Linden. 

Linden leaves. 

Linen. 

Linen rags. 

Liquorice root. 

Liquorice wood. 

Livistonia mauritiana, Sago-palm. 

Lolium pcrenne, Rye-grass. 

Long moss, Tillandsia. 

Lucerne. 

Ijucitodiuin equisetum. 

Lychnophora. 

Lye-plant, Commersonia Fraseri. 

Domhega Natalensis. 

Macroclinla Tenacissima. 
Madar. (See Mudar.) 
Madder. 

Madgascariensis, Urania. 
Madras hemp. (See Sunn.) 
Maguey, Agave Americana. 

Agave IMexicana. 
Maize, Zea mays. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



71 



Maize, cobs, husks, leaves, and stalks. 

Mallow. 

Malpighicece. 

Malva. 

Malvaceas. 

Mandioc, Jatroplia manilwt. 

Mangel-wurzel. 

Manilla. 

Manilla liemp, Musa textilis. 

Manispernum. 

Manure. 

Maple. 

Marica Northiana^ stems and leaves of. 

Marsdenia tenacisslma, Geld. 

Marsli-o;rass, Glyceria aquatica. 

Marsh rush, Scirjnis palustris. 

Marzi. 

Masse-d'eau. 

Mateva, Hi/phoene Thehaica. 

Medichey. 

i Common tea- 
tree. 
Swamp tea-tree 
Melaleuca genistifolia, Broom-leaved 

tea-tree. 
Melalanca squarrosa, Victorian yellow 

wood. 
Melocliia liliacefolia, Urania. 
MelastomaceEe. 

Melic-grass, Molinea coerulea, 
Meslita, Hihiecus cannbinus. 

Hibiscus Sabdarijf'a. 
Messmate, Eucalyptus Jissilis. 
Milkweed, Asclepias. 
Mineral fibre. 

Mohant-tree, Hibiscus arhoreus. 
Molinea coerulea, Melic-grass. 
Moorva, 
Moova. 
Moras bark. 

Morus tartarica. Mulberry. 
Mosses. 
Mothwort. 
Mudar, Calotropis gigantea. 



Mug wort, stalks of. 
Mulberry (Kuwa, Japan). 

Alpina magnijica. 

Cordia myxa. 

Ixona cuneifolia. 

Morus tartarica. 

Inner bark. 
Mulberry trees. 
Mulberry wood. 
Mummies and cloth. 
Mummy cloth. 
Musaceas. 

]\Tusa ensete, Banana, 
il/usa paradisiaca, Plantain. 
I\Iusa sapientum, Plantain. 
Musa textilis, Manilla hemp. 
Muscovy match. 
Mustard. 
Mya-grass. 
Myrtaceai. 

Native tussock-grass, A'ero^es longifolia. 

Navy stores, old. 

Neilgherry nettle, Urtica Tieterophylla. 

Nepal paper plant. Daphne cannabina. 

Nets, old fishing. 

Nettle, Urtica incisa. 

Nettle bark. 

Nettle Avood. 

Nettles, stinging, Urtica. 

Nettles, stingless, Boihmerin. 

New Zealand flax. Phormium tcnax. 

Nona, Anona reticulata. 



Oak, Quercus robur, wood of. 
Oak leaves. 
Oakum. 

Oats, Avena sativa. 
Okra, 
Okro, 
Onocarpus batava. 

Orach (written also Orache, Arrache, 
and Orrach). 



AbelmoscJius esculentus. 



72 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Oryza, Rice plant. 

Osier, Salix alLa, Avood of. 

Oi-yza, Rice plant. 

Paddy straw. 

Palm, dwarf. 

Palm fibre. 

Palm, palmetto. 

Palmetto and chamoerops (Palmetto 

cabbage). 
Palmetto fibre. 
Palmyra, leaves of. 
PalygaleiB. 

Pampas-grass, Gynerium argenteum. 
Panama-hat straw, Carludovica pal- 

mata. 
Pandanus. 

Pandanus utilis, Screw pine. 
Pandamus utilis, stems and leaves of. 
Paper cuttings. 
Paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyri- 

fero. 
Paper mulberry, bark of. 
Paper, old. 
Pappus. 
Papyrus. 

Papyrus, raw fibre of. 
Parkinsonia aculeata. 
Pasteboard scraps. 
Pat, same as Jute. 
Peas. 

Pea-stalks. 
Peat. 

Pederic fmtida. 

Phalaria Canariensis, Canary-crass. 
Phormium ienax, New Zealand flax. 

Stems and leaves of. 
Phragmites vulgaris, Reed. 
Pimelea axijiora, Currijono-. 
Pineapple, Ananassa Saliva. 
Bromelia Pinguin. 
Bromelia sylvestris. 
Pineapple leaves. 
Pine-cones. 



Pine-leaves. 

Pine- shavings. 

Pine-tree, inner bark of. 

Pinus Australis, Pitch-pine, wood of. 

Pinus sylvestris, Fir, wood of. 

Pinus sylvestris rubra. Red pine, wood 
of. 

Pipturus iiropinquus, Queensland grass- 
cloth plant. 

Pisang. 

Pita. 

Pitch pine, Pinus Australis, wood of. 

Pittosporum cornifolium, Currijong. 

Pittosjwrum crassifolium. Thick-leaved 
pittosporum. 

Plagianlhus hetidinus, Ribbon-tree. 

Plane-tree, Platanus occidentalis. 

Plantain, Musa paradisiaca. 
Musa sapientum. 

Platanus occidentalis. Plane-tree. 

Plume-grass, Arunda conspicua. 

Poa Australis, Wire-grass. 

Poke- weed, Phytolacca decandra. 

Pollen of plants. 

Poplar. 

Poplar down. 

Poppy. 

Popylus Italica, Italian poplar. 

Populus ciliata. 

Populus tremula, Aspen-trec, wood of. 

Potari, Ahutilon Indicum. 

Potatoes. 

Potato skins. 

Potato vines. 

Pourretia i)lantanifolia. 

Printed waste. 

Pteris. 

Pterosperminn acerifoliuin, Urania. 

Pulps, wood, straw, and other. 

Pulu. 

Puyba Bcchmeria. 

Queensland grass-cloth plant, Pij^iurvs 
2)ro2nnquus. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



73 



Queensland hemp, Sida retusa. 
Querciis robur, lied oak, wood of. 
Quickens, same as Dog-orass. 

Rag-bagging. 

Rags. 

Ramie. 

Ram turai of India. 

Raspberry. 

Rattan, Calayniis vents, wood of. 

Red pine, Pinus sylvestris rubra, wood 

of. 
Reed, Pliragmites vulgaris. 
Reed-grass, meadow, Qlyceria aqua- 

tica. 
Reeds. 
Rhamneaj. 
Rhamnus Fragula, Black alder, wood 

of. 
Rhea-fibre. 

Rhubarb. ' 

Ribbon-tree, Plar/ianthus betulinus. 
Rice- plant, Orijza. 
Rice, stalks of the wild. 
Rice-straw. 
Ricinus. 

River rush, Isolepis nodosa, 
Robinia Pseudo-Acacia, Acacia, wood 

of. 
Roots. 

Roots of gi-asses. 
Rope. 
Rosaccse. 

Roselle, Hibiscus Sabdariffa. 
Rose-mallow. 
Rubiaccie. 
Rushes. 
Rutaceae. 

Rye, Secale cereale. 
Rye-grass, Hordem murinum. 
Lolium perenne. 

Saccharum munja. 

Saccharum ojfficinarum, Sugar-cane. 



Sacks, old. 

Sago. 

Sago-palm, Colocasia antiquorum. 

Liviston ia mauritiana . 

Sagus rujfia. 

Sanseviera cylindrica. 

Sanseviera latifolia. 

Sanseviera Zebrina. 
Sagus ruffia, Sago-palm. 
Sagus sacclierifera, Sago-palm. 
Sails, old. 
Salix alba. Osier, wood of. 

Willow, wood of. 
Salt hay, Spartina juncea. 
Salvia Canariensis. 
Sandpaper waste.. 
Sanseviera cylindrica, \ 
Sanseviera laiifolia, V Sago-palra. 
Sanseviera Zebrina, J 

{Bowstring 
hemp. 
Ife-tree. 
Satin. 

Sawdust. 

Scirpus Jluviatilis, Club rush. 
Stems and leaves of. 
Scirpus Icenstris. 
Scirjnts palustris, Marsh I'ush. 
Scotch ferns. 
Screw pine, Pandanus utilis, stems and 

leaves of. 
Seacoast rush, Dianella latifolia. 

Dianella longifolia. 

Juncus maritimus. 

Juncus vaginatus. 
Sea-grass. 
Sea-mallow. 
Sea-weeds. 

Sea-wrack. (See Varec.) 
Secole cereale, Rye. 
Secrate. 

Sedge, stalks and roots of. 
Sedge-grass, Carex appressa. 
Seed down of thistles. 



74 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Seines, old. 
Seratula ervansis. 
Seshania aculeata, Danchi. 

Dhonc'hI. 
Shavings. 

Ground. 

Paper. 

Wood. 

Shingles, old. 

Sida. 

Sida ptilchella, Victorian hemp. 

Sida rhomboitla, Barriala. 

Sida tilicefolia. 

Silk. 

Silk cocoon, refuse of. 

Silk plant, Asclepias. 

Silk, refuse. 

Sisal-grass, ^ . . . 

f ' y Agave Americana. 
Sisal-hemp, ) 

Skins, pieces of. 

Slender sword-grass (Mat-grass), Lepi- 

dosperm a flexuos a . 
Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vaginaius^ 

stems and leaves of. 
Soft-leaved abutilon, Ahutilon mollis. 
Solaneaj. 
Solonacea;. 
Sorghum. 
Sorghum, refuse. 
Sorgo Sucre, Chinese sugar-cane. 
Sotal tree. 

Spanish Bayonet, Yucca aloifolia. 
Spanish Broom, Macrocliola Tenacis- 

sima. 
Spanish-grass. 
Sparganium family. 

Sparmannia Africana, Adam's Needle. 
Spartina cynosuroides, Cord-grass. 
Spartina juncea, Salt hay. 
Sparlium ju7iceum, Spanish-broom. 
Spartium scnparium^ Wheat. 
Spear lily, Doryanthes excelsa. 
Spindle-tree. 
Spruce, firewood of. 



Stems and leaves of — 

Coast rush, Juncus maritimus. 

Coast sword rush, Lepidosperma gla- 
diatuin. 

Cyplierus lucidus. 

Cypherus sp. 

Dianella lati folia, 

Gahnia psittacorum, Var. erythro- 
carpum. 

Giant lily, Agave, Fourcroya gigan- 
tea. 

Jaggery palm, Caryota urens. 

Marica Northiana. 

Native bulrush. 

Native tussock-grass, Zerotes longi- 
folia. 

New Zealand flax, PJwrmium tenax. 

Pampas-grass, Arundo conspicuo. 

Sciiyus Jiuviatilis . 

Screw pine, Pandanus utilis. 

Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vagi- 
natus. 

Swamp moss, Confeva sp. 

Tall jialm lily, Cordyline indivisa. 

Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma cla- 
tius. 
Stems of — 

Carex appressa. 

Carex pseudo-cyperus. 

Ehrharta tenacissima. 

Few-flowered rush, Juncus pauci- 
florus. 

Isonepeis nodosa. 

Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa. 
Stercidia acerifolia, Flame-tree. 
Sterculia diversifolia, Victorian bottle- 
tree. 
Sterculia fcetida, ^ 
Sterculia lucida, i 

Sterculia represtris, \- Bottle-tree. 
Sterculia villosa. I 
Stercidia urens, ^ 

Stinging nettle. 
Slipa tenacissima. 



MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 



75 



Stolpoddo, Hibiscus mutahilis. 

Stone. 

Stramoninm, Datura Stramonium. 

Straws of cereal and leguminous plants. 

StraAV paper, old. 

Strelilza regina, Baobab. 

Stringy bark, Eucalyptus ohliqua. 

Stypa spartilm. 

Sugar-cane, Saccharum ofjicinarum. 

Sugar-cane leaves. 

Sultana bark. 

Sunflower. 

Sun-hemp. (See Sunn.) 

Sunn, Crotalaria juncea. 

Swamp moss. 

Swamp tea-tree, Ulelaleuca ericifolia. 

Melaleuca genistifolia. 

Melaleuca squarrosa. 
Sweet broom. 
Sword-grass, Galinia psittacorum. 

Lepidosperma elatius. 

Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa^ stems 

and leaves of. 
Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma elatius, 

stems and leaves of. 
Tan. 

Tan bark, etc. 
Tan spent. 
Tarred rope. 
Terehinthenacece. 
Thalipot, leaves of. 
Thick-leaved pittosporum, Pitiosporum 

crassifolium. 
Thistle-down. 
Thistle-stalks. 
Thistles. 
Threads. 

Tikkur, refuse stems and leaves of. 
Tilia Eurojycea, Lime-tree, wood of. 
Tillandsia. 
Timothy. 
Tobacco. 
Tousles Mois, annual stems and leaves. 



Tow. 

Tracena endivisa. 

Tree moss. 

Tree nettle, Laporiia gigus. 

Traphis. 

Triticum repens, Dog-grass (also called 
Couch-grass, Dog-wheat, Knot-grass, 
Twitch-grass, Quitch and Quickens). 

Triticum vulgare, Wheat. 

Tulip leaves. 

Turmeric, refuse stems and leaves of. 

Turf. 

Turnips. 

Tussock-gi-ass, Xerotes longifolia. 

Twine. 

Twitch-grass, same as Dog-grass. 

Typha angustifolia, Bulrush. 
Stems and leaves of. 

Typlia latijolia, Cat-tail. 

Ulmus. 

Llmus camjyestris, Elm, wood of. 

Ulva marina, 

Urania, Guazama idmifolia. 

(Ravenda) Madgascariensis. 

Meloclna liliacefolia. 

Pterospermum acerifolium. 
Urtica divaricata, Giant nettle. 
Urtica Jieterophylla, Neilgherry nettle. 
Urtica incisa, Victorian nettle. 
Urticece. 
Usnea (Lichens). 

Varec, ] j-, -7 

' \ luicus vesiculosus. 
Vareeki ) 

Vegetable fibres, raw. 

Vellozite. 

Victorian bottle-tree, Sterculia diversi- 

folia. 
Victorian hemp, Sida pulcliella. 
Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa, stems of. 
Victorian yellow-wood, Melaleuca 

squarrosa. 
Vined lantern-flower, Ahutilon venosum. 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



76 

Vines, grape-vines. 
Vines, hop. 



Wiilnut, Juglans regia, wood of. 

Walnut leaves. 

"Wasps' nests. 

Waste, cotton. 

Waste papers. 

Water-broom. 

Water-lilies. 

Water-moss. 

Water-oats, Xizania aqiiatica. 

Water-plants. 

Water- weeds. 

Wayfaring- tree. 

Weeds. 

W^heat, Iriticum vulgare. 

Wheat straw. 

Whin: 

White moss. 

White pine, Ahies pectinata, wood of. 

White-wood. 

White poplar, Popalus alba, wood of. 

Wikstrcemia solicifolia. 

Wild broom, Spartium scoparium. 

Wild cherry (Hino-ki, Japan). 

Willow, Salix alba, wood of. 

Willow-herb, stalks of. 

Willow, inner bark of. 

Willow twigs. 

Willow wood. 

Wire-grass, Elirliaria tenacissima. 

Foa Australis. 
Wood-chips. 
Wood. 

Wood-pulp. "^ , 

J- ■•■ per cent. 

Woods — of fibre. 

Acacia, JtoMnia Psoid- Acacia . 34.10 

Alder, Abiufi ghitinosa . . 34.30 

Ash, Frax'mus excelsior . . 3?. 28 

Aspen-tree, Poinilns tremula . 35. 



Yield 

per cent. 

of fibre. 

34.90 

30.90 

33.80 



Woods — 

Bamboo, Bamhusa thonarsu 

Beech, Fagus sylvatlca 

Birch Betula alba 

Black alder, lihamnus Frangula 37.82 

Canadian poplar, Popidus 

Canadensis .... 36.88 

Elm, TJlmus campestris . . 31.81 

Filbert-tree, Corylus Avellana . 31.50 

Fir, Finns sylventris . . . 35.17 

Heath, Erica vulgaris . . 27.14 
Horse-chestnut, ^sculus Hip- 

pocastanum . . , . 38.26 

Italian poplar, Pop)ulus Itallca 36.12 

Lime-tree, Tilia Europcea . 38.16 

Oak, Quercus robnr . . . 29.16 

Osier, Salix alba . . . 29.50 

Pitch pine, Pinus Australis , 31.08 

Rattan, Calamus varus . . 29.19 

Red pine, Pimcs sylvestris rubra 32.28 

Walnut, Juglans regia . . 26.52 

White Tpme, Abies 23ectinata . 34.60 

White poplar, Populus alba , 35.81 

Willow, Salix alba . . . 37.82 

Woolen. 

Woolen- grass (Typha). 

Wrack. (See Varec.) 

Xerotes longifolia, Tussock-grass. 

Yellow wood, after extracting dye. 

Yercum, Calatropis gigantea. 

Yucca aloifolia, Spanish bayonet. 

Yucca angustifolia. 

Yucca breviola. 

Yucca draconis. 

Yucca Jilamentosa. 

Yucca gloriosa, Adam's Needle 

Yucca puherula. 

Zizania aquatica, Water oats. 
Zea Mays, Maize. • 
Zopissa. 



CELLULOSE. 77 

MiCROGRAPHic Study of the Manufacture of Paper.^- 

From a microscopic study of the varioiis vegetable fibres 
used in paper-making, A. Girard has determined the quali- 
ties such fibres ought to possess. Absolute length is not 
of much importance, but the fibre should be slender and 
elastic, and possess the property of turning upon itself with 
facility. Tenacity is of but secondary importance, for, when 
paper is torn, the fibres scarcely ever break. The principal 
substances employed in paper-making may be divided into 
five different classes : — 

1. Rounds rihhed fibres, as hemp and flax. * 

2. Smooth or feeblij ribbed fibres, as esparto, jute, phor- 

mium, dwarf palm, hop, and sugar-cane. 

3. Fibro-ceUular substances, as the pulp obtained from the 

straw of rye and wheat, by the action of caustic lye. 

4. Flat fibres, as cotton, and those obtained by the action 

of caustic lye upon wood. 

5. Imperfect substances, as the pulp obtained from sawdust. 

Cellulose. 

Cellulose, CeH^oOs, constitutes the essential part of the 
solid framework or celhdar tissue of plants, and hence is 
an especially characteristic product of the vegetable king- 
dom. The outer coating of ascidian animals is, however, 
apparently identical with cellulose. 

' 'Comp. Rend.,' Ixxx. 629-1)31 ; ' Cheni. Soc. J.,' xxviii. G75. 



78 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Cellulose occurs nearly pure in cotton, linen, and the 
pith of certain plants. Swedish filter paper, linen rags, and 
cotton-wool are still purer forms of cellulose. 

Cellulose is a white, tasteless, odorless, non-volatile body 
of about 1.45 specific gravity. It is insoluble in water and 
all ordinary menstrua, but dissolves, as first observed by 
SchAveitzer, in a strong solution of cupric oxide in ammonia. 

Hydrocellulose^ C^^if^n-t is the product of the action of 
rriineral acids (e. </., sulphuric acid of 1.42 sp. gr., or fuming 
hydrochloric acid), and many other reagents on cellulose. 
It always retains the form of the cellulose from which it is 
derived^ but differs therefrom in being extremely friable, 
more readily afi'ected by reagents, and in the readiness with 
which it combines with coloring matters. 

Cellulose undergoes gradual change by prolonged boiling 
with dilute acids, being converted into hydrocellulose, and 
is even affected by boiling water alone, especially if heated 
under pressure. 

Oxycellulose appears to vary somewhat in composition 
according to the mode of preparation, but an apparently 
definite substance of the formula, CisHgeOig, was obtained by 
Cross and Bevan (' Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,' iii. 206) from 
several different sources. The cellulose was boiled wdth 
nitric acid containing 50 per cent, of HNO3, whereby it was 
largely oxidized to oxalic acid, but yielded 30 per cent, of 
oxycellulose in the form of a fine white powder, readily 
soluble in dilute alkalies, and reprecipitable from the solu- 
tion in a pectous form on addition of acids, salts, or alcohol. 
Oxycellulose dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with 



DETERMINATION OF CELLULOSE. 79 

pink coloration, and yields a gummy dextro-rotatory sub- 
stance resembling ordinary dextrin. By the action of con- 
centrated nitric acid mixed with sulphuric acid oxycellulose 
yields a nitro-com pound of the formula CisH23(N02)30ie. 

The oxidation of cellulose by hypochlorites seems to 
depend on the presence of free acid/ even the atmospheric 
carbonic acid having a notable influence. When once 
converted into oxycellulose, no reducing agent (e. g.^ thio- 
sulphate) will restore the fibre to its original condition. By 
immersing dyed oxycellulose tissue in a bleaching liquid, 
the dye can be made to disappear, and the fibre can be 
re-dyed of any color by immersion in the solution of a 
suitable coloring matter. 

Determination of Cellulose. 

For the determination of cellulose in wood, vegetable 
fibres, and substances to be used for the manufacture of 
paper, Midler recommends the following processes : 5 
grams weight of the finely divided substance is boiled 
four or five times with water, using 100 c. c. each time. 
The residue is dried at 100° C, weighed and exhausted 
with a mixture of equal measures of benzine and strong 
alcohol, to remove fat, wax, resin, etc. The residue is again 
dried, and boiled several times with water, to every 100 c. c. 
of which 1 c. c. of strong ammonia has been added. This 
treatment removes coloring matter and pectous substances. 

' If paper be written on with a solution of potassium chlorate acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, oxj-cellulose is formed, and on immersing the paper in a solu- 
tion of a basic coal-tar dye the writing will appear in color. 



80 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The residue is further bruised in a mortar if necessary, and 
is then treated in a closed bottle with 250 c. c. of water, and 
20 c. c. of bromine water containing 4 c. c. of bromine to 
the litre. In the case of the purer bark- fibres, such as flax 
and hemp, the yellow color of the liquid only slowly disap- 
pears, but with straw and woods decolorization occurs in a 
few minutes. When this talies place, more bromine water 
is added, and this is repeated till the yellow color remains 
and bromine can be detected in the liquid after twelve hours. 
The liquid is then filtered, and the residue washed with 
Avater and heated to boiling with a litre of water containing 
5 c. c. of strong ammonia. The liquid and tissue are usually 
colored brown by this treatment. The undissolved matter 
is filtered off", washed, and again treated with bromine water. 
When the action seems complete, the residue is again heated 
with ammoniacal water. This second treatment is sufficient 
with the purer fibres, but the operation must be repeated as 
often as the residue imparts a brownish tint to the alkaline 
liquid. The cellulose is thus obtained as a pure white body. 
It is washed with water and then with boiling alcohol, after 
which treatment it may be dried at 100° C. and weighed. 

Bevan and Cross, 'Chem. News,' xlii. 77, substitute a 
treatment with chlorine gas for the repeated digestion with 
dilute bromine water, prescribed in the foregoing process. A 
single repetition of the treatment is then always sufficient, 
and the results obtained are concordant with those given by 
the bromine process. Bevan and Cross also find that by 
boiling the chlorinated fibre for a few minutes in a 5 per 
cent, solution of sodium sulphite, and then in a 1 per cent. 



RECOGNITION" OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 81 

solution of caustic potash, pure cellulose is at once obtained, 
the results by this method being 5 per cent, higher than 
those yielded by Miiller's process. 

Recognition of Vegetable Fibres. 

As vegetable fibres, when thoroughly bleached, all consist 
of nearly pure cellulose, chemical tests are not available for 
distinguishing one kind from another ; but, owing to the 
impossibility of wholly removing the incrusting matter on 
the manufacturing scale, it is possible to distinguish between 
certain fibres, such as cotton and linen. 

By far the best and most reliable means of differentiating 
vegetable fibres is to examine their structure with a micro- 
scopic power of 120 to 150 diameters. 

Filaments of cotton appear under the microscope as trans- 
parent tubes about .04 millimetre in diameter, flattened and 
twisted round their axes, and tapering off to a closed point 
at each end. A section of the filament resembles somewhat 
a figure-of-eight, the tube, originally cylindrical, having 
collapsed most in the middle, forming semi-tubes on each 
side, which give to the fibre, when viewed in certain lights, the 
appearance of a flat ribbon with the hem or border at each 
edge. The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired 
by small irregular figures, in all probability wrinkles or 
creases arising from the desiccation of the tube. The twisted 
and corkscrew form of the dried filament of cotton distin- 
guishes it from all other vegetable fibres, and is characteristic 
of the fully ripe and mature pod, M. Bauer having ascer- 



82 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tained that the fibres of the unripe seed are simply untwisted 
cylindrical tubes, which never twist afterwards if separated 
from the plant ; but when the seeds ripen, even before the 
capsule bursts, the cylindrical tubes collapse in the middle 
and assume the form already described. This form and 
character the fibres always retain, undergoing no change 
through the various operations of spinning, weaving, bleach- 
ing, printing, and dyeing, nor in all the subsequent domestic 
processes of washing, etc., and even the reduction of the 
rags to pulp for the manufacture of paper effects no change 
in the structure of the fibres. 

Linen or flax fibre appears under the microscope as hollow 
cylindrical tubes open at both ends, and having a diameter 
of about .02 of a millimetre. The fibres are smooth, the 
inner tube very narrow, and joints or septa appear at inter- 
vals, but they are not furnished with hairy appendages, as is 
the case with hemp. The jointed structure of flax is only 
perceptible under a very excellent instrument, and with 
judicious management of the light. 

When flax fibre (linen) is immersed in a boiling solution 
of equal parts of caustic potash and water for about a minute, 
and then removed and pressed between folds of filter paper, 
it assumes a dark-yellow color, whilst cotton, when similarly 
treated, either remains white or becomes a very bright yellow. 
The same solution of potash, employed cold, colors raw flax 
orange-yellow, whilst raw cotton becomes gray. 

When flax or a tissue made from it is immersed in oil, 
and then strongly pressed to remove the excess of the liquid, 
it remains transparent, while cotton similarly treated becomes 
opaque. 



RECOGNITION" OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 83 

Phormium tenax^ or New Zealand flax, may be distin- 
guished from ordinary flax or hemp by the red color pro- 
duced on immersing it in nitric acid of 1.32 sp. gravity, 
containing lower oxides of nitrogen. A reddish color is also 
developed if New Zealand flax be immersed first in strong 
chlorine water and then in ammonia. 

In machine-dressed New Zealand flax the bundles are 
translucent and irregularly covered with tissue. Spiral 
fibres can be detected in the bundles, but less numerous 
than with sizal. The bundles are flat, and numerous ulti- 
mate fibres project from them. In Maori-prepared phormium 
the bundles are almost wholly free from tissue, and there are 
no spiral fibres. 

Hemp fibre resembles flax, but has a mean diameter of 
about .04 mm., and exhibits small hairy appendages at the 
joints. 

With Manilla hemp the fibrous bundles are oval, nearly 
opaque, and surrounded by a considerable quantity of dried- 
up cellular tissue composed of rectangular cells. The bun- 
dles are smooth, very few partly detached ultimate fibres are 
seen, and no spiral tissue. 

,Sizal forms oval fibrous bundles surrounded by cellular 
tissue ; a few smooth ultimate fibres projecting from the 
bundles. Sizal is more translucent than Manilla, and is 
characterized by the large quantity of spiral fibres mixed up 
in the bundles. 

Jute fibre appears under the microscope as bundles of 
tendrils, each of which is a cylinder with irregularly thick- 
ened walls, the thickening often amounting to a partial 



84 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

interruption of the central lumen. The bundles offer a 
smooth cylindrical surface, to which fact the silky lustre of 
jute is due, and which is much increased by bleaching. By 
the action of sodium hypochlorite, the bundles of fibres can 
be disintegrated so that the single fibres can be more readily 
distinguished under the microscope. Jute is colored a 
deeper yellow by aniline sulphate than is any other fibre, 
and responds strongly to the bromine and sulphite test. 

In examining fibres under the microscope the tissue 
should be cut up with sharp scissors, placed on a glass slide, 
moistened with water, and covered with a piece of thin glass. 

Note. — For the portions of this chapter contained under the heads of Deter- 
mination of CeUulose, and Recognition of Vegetable Fibres, the author desires to 
acknowledge his indebtedness to Allen's 'Commercial Organic Analysis,' vol. i. 
p. 316 et seq. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER. 



85 



, CHAPTER III. 

COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER SIZES OF PAPER 

COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 

The following list shows the manner in which new papers 
and boards are usually classified in the markets of the 
United States : — 



Binders' boards No. 1. 
Binders' boards No. 2. 
Blotting, American. 
Blotting, English. 
Book, extra machine finish. 
Book, fine white and tinted. 
Book, machine finish, low grade. 
Book, No. 1, shavings and imperfec- 
tions. 
Book, No. 2. 
Book, superfine. 

Book, super-sized and calendered. 
Book, super-sized and tinted. 
Card middles, gi'onnd wood. 
Card middles, long fibre wood. 
Card middles, rag and wood. 
Cigarette straw tissue. 
Colored papers, double mediums. 
Colored papers, glazed mediums. 
Colored papers, tobacco. 
Colored papers, tissues. 
Filter paper. 
Flat caps, engine-sized. 
Flat caps, fines. 
Hanging, brown. 
Hanging, buff. 
Hanging, curtain. 



Hanging, machine satin. 

Hanging, superfine, No. 1. 

Hanging, superfine. No. 2. 

Hanging, white blank, No. 1. 

Hardware, light-colored. No. 1. 

Hardware, No. 1, glazed. 

Hardware, No. 1, glazed, tarred. 

HardAvare, red. 

Leather board, common. 

Leather board, counter. 

Leather board, extra. 

Ledger. 

Manilla, bleached. No. 1. 

Manilla, bleached, No. 2. 

Manilla, cream, rope. 

Manilla, extra jute. 

Manilla, jute and gunny. 

Manilla, No. 1, heavy weight. 

Manilla, No. 1, light weight. 

Manilla, No. 1, rope. 

]\Ianilla, No. 2. 

Manilla, ordinary. 

Manillas, bogus. 

Manillas, fioursack, cream. 

Manillas, flour-sack, drab. 

Manillas, rope, unbleached. No. 1. 

Manillas, rope, unbleached, No. 2. 



86 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



News, No 1. 

News, rag and wood. 

News, No. 1, rag. 

News, ordinary rag. 

News, straw. 

News, straw and wood. 

Plate. 

Record. 

Straw boards, air- dried. 

Straw boards, alr-drled. No. 1. 

Straw boards, alr-drled. New York. 

Straw boards, alr-drled, Penn. 

Straw boards, steam-dried. 

Straw boards, steam-dried, No. 1. 



Straw boards, steam-dried. No. 2. 

Straw boards, steam-dried. No. 3. 

Straw wrapping. 

Straw wrapping, heavy weight. 

Straw wrapping, light weight. 

Super-calendered, white and tinted. 

Tar boards. 

Tea papers. 

Test papers. 

Tissue, Manillas. 

Tissues, black. 

Tissues, white. 

Tracing paper. 



Sizes of Papers. 

There is in the United States no one set of standard sizes 
for book papers and for news papers. The lists of sizes vary 
in Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, and Boston. Old 
names of sizes for writings and bank ledger papers have 
been retained; but names of sizes for printing papers have 
virtually disappeared. The sizes and weights of news, 
book, and other papers carried regularly in stock by paper 
dealers are as follows : — 



Sizes, inches. 
24 X 38 . 
26 X 40 . 
28 X 42 . 
31 X 44 . 
33 X 46 . 



NEWS. 

Weights (lbs. per ream). 

. 25, 27, 30. 

. 35. 

. 40, 45. 

. 40, 50, 60. 

. 60. 



MACHINE FINISHED BOOK, WHITE AND TONED. 

Sizes, inches. Weii^hts (lbs. per ream). 

24 X 38 30, 35, 40, 50, 60. 

26 X 40 50, 60. 

28 X 42 40, 45, 50. 

31 X 44 50, 60. 



SIZES OF PAPERS. 



87 



SIZED SUPER CALENDERED BOOK, WHITE AND TONED. 

Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 

23 X 28 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 

24 X 88 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100. 

2G X 40 50, 60, 70. 

28 X 42 50, 60, 70. 

31 X 44 50, 60, 70. 

COLORED COVER PAPERS. 

Slz'es, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 

20 X 25 22, 33, 40, 48. 

23 X 28 32, 50. 

24 X 38 40. 

MANILLAS. 

Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 

24 X 36 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 

30 X 40 28, 30. 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 

40 X 48 100, 125, 150. 



FLAT WRITINGS. 



Names. Sizes, inches. 

Letter . . . . . 10 X 16 
Small cap ... 13 X 16 

Cap 14 X 17 

Crown 15 X 19 

Demy 16 x 31 

Folio 17 X 33 

Medium . . . . 18 X 23 

Royal 19 X 24 

Double cap . . . 17 X 28 



Weights (lbs. per ream). 
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 
12. 

12, 14, 16, 18, 20. 

18, 20, 22, 24. 

16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28. 

14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28. 

24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36. 

20, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36. 

24, 28, 32, 36, 40. 



"LINEN" BANK-LEDGER PAPERS. 



Names. 
Crown . . 
Demy . . 
Medium . 
Royal . . 
Super royal 
Elephant . 
Imperial . 
Double cap 
Double demy 



Double medium 

Double royal 
Colombier 
Atlas . . . 
Double elephant 
Antiquarian . . 



Sizes, 
. 15 
. 16 
. 18 
. 19 
. 20 
. 23 
. 23 
. 17 
. 31 
. 16 
. 23 
. 18 
. 24 
. 23 
. 26 
. 27 
. 31 



inches. 

Xl9 

X31 

X23 

X24 

X28 

X28 

X31 

X28 

X33 

X43 

X36 

X46 

X38 

X34 

X33 

X40 

X 53 



Weights (lbs. per ream). 
22. 

28, 30. 
36, 40. 
44. 
54. 
65. 
72. 



60. 
60. 
80. 

80. 

88. 

80. 

100. 

125. 

200. 



36, 40, 



88 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Commercial Classifications of Paper-Making Materials. 

Rags. 

Eags are imported into the United States from almost 
every civilized country in the world ; but the alphabetical 
classifications (not classifications according to value) of 
paper-making materials given in this chapter embrace only 
those which are regularly quoted in the markets of the 
United States and of Great Britain. 



ALEXANDRIA RAGS. 


Blues. 


Whites. 


Colors. 




BELGIAN RAGS. 


Dirty fines. 


Linens, No. 4. 


Fustians, dark. 


Linens, white. No. 1, 


Fustians, light. 


Outshots. 


Houseeloths. 


Prints, light. 


Linens, gray. 


Prints, tender, for blottings 


Linens, No. 1. 


White cottons. 


Linens, No. 2. 


White cottons, superfine. 


Linens, No. 3. 




BRITIS] 


L RAGS. 


Black calicoes. 


Fustians, light. 


Burlaps, bagging. No. 1. 


Light prints. 


Canvas linen, first. 


London fines, cotton. 


Canvas linen, second. 


New cuttings, cotton. 


Checks and blues. 


New print tabs. 


Essex fines. 


Outshots, cotton. 


Flax tow. 


Seconds. 


Fustians, dark. 


Thirds. 


CONSTANTIN 


OPLE RAGS. 


Blues. 


Whites, No. 2. 


Reds. 


Whites, No. 3. 


Whites, No. 1. 





PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 



89 



DOMESTIC RAGS. 



Canvas, cotton. 

Canvas, linen. 

City -whites, No. 1. 

City whites, No. 2. 

Colors. 

Country, mixed. 

Country, mixed, free of woollens. 



Country, seconds. 
Country, white. 
Mill assorted, whites. 
New seconds, dark. 
New seconds, light. 
Unbleached muslins. 
White shirt cuttings. 



DUTCH RAGS. 



Blues. 

Cottons, dark. 
Fustians, light and brown. 
Linens, fine whites, No. 1. 



Linens, fine whites, No. 2, 
Linens, fine whites, No. 3. 
Prints, light. 



HAMBURG RAGS. 



NSC, new shirt cuttings. 

SP FFF, No. 1, linens. 

S P FF, No. 2, linens. 

SP F, No. 3, linens. 

FG, No. 4, linens. 

F F, No. 5, linens. 

Extra fine blue linen, light color. 



L F B, blue linens. 

CSP FFF, No. 1, cottons. 

CS P FF, No. 2, cottons. 

C S PF, No. 3, cottons. 

C G C, colored cottons. 

C F X, low-grade cottons. 

Extra fine blue cottons. 



Blues, ordinary, 
Blues, selected. 



JAPANESE RAGS. 

I Whites, ordinary, 



SPFFF,'No.l, linens. 
S P FF, No. 2, linens. 
5 P F, No. 3, linens. 



KOXIGSBERG RAGS. 



F G, No. 4, linens. 
F F, No. 5, linens. 
L F X, low-grade linens. 



LEGHORN RAGS. 



P P, No. 1, white linens. 
»S' S, No. 2, white linens. 
T T, No. 3, white linens. 
R R, linen stripes,. 
P C, No. ], white cottons. 



5" C, No. 2, white cottons. 
2' G, No. 3, white cottons. 
R C, cotton stripes. 
G C, colored cottons. 



90 



TBE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



S P FK 
SP t. 
FG. 
B G. 



LIBAN RAGS, LINENS. 

Sacking. 

A. 

LFB. 



S P FF, No. 1, linens. 
S P F, No. 2, linens. 
F G, No. 3, linens. 



MEUEEL RAGS, LINENS. 

F F, No. 4, linens. 
LFB, blue linens. 



RUSSIAN RAGS. 



jSP FF, No. 1, linens. 
aS P F, No. 2, linens. 
F G, No. 3, linens. 



F F, No. 4, linens. 
L F X, No. 5, linens. 
LFB, blue linens. 



Blues. 
Mixed. 



SMYRNA RAGS. 

Reds. 
Whites. 



SP F. 
S F F, 



Bagging, mixed. 
Gunny bagging, No. 1 . 
Gunny baling, No. 2. 
Jute threads, best. 
Jute threads, clean. 



Binders' board cuttings. 
Bogus Manillas. 
Book stock, No. 1, light. 
Books, new, solid folios. 
Books, old blank. 
Books, old printed. 
Briefs and letters. 
Broken news and letters. 
Commons. 



TRIEST RAGS. 

\S FX. 
\SFB. 



Rope, Bagging, and Threads. 



Rope, jute. 
Rope, Manilla. 
Rope, tarred Manilla. 
Rope, white Manilla. 
Rope, mixed. 



Shavings and Old Papers. 



Hardware, No. 1. 

Ledger and writing. 

Manillas, No. 1. 

Newspapers and pamphlets, extra. 

Newspapers and pamphlets, old. 

Paper-collar cuttings. 

Railway sheets, white and buff. 

Railway tickets. 

Shavings, cream post. 



PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 



91 



Shavings, mixed. 

Shavings, mixed, part white. 

Shavings, No. 1, hard. 

Shavings, No. 1, soft. 

Shavings, No. 1, -white and colored. 

Shavings, No. 2, white and colored. 



Solid stock. 
Straw board cuttings. 
White collar cuttings. 
White envelope cuttings. 
White shavings, hard. No. 1 . 
White shavings, soft, No. 1. 



Adansonia fibre. 
Bamboo, crushed. 



Various Fibres. 



Palm fibre. 
Palm leaves. 



Fibre, bales. 
Fibre, ballots. 



COIR GOODS. 

I Fibre, rope. 



Good black. 



CURLED FIBRE. 

I Good orreen. 



Gutta-percha, good to fine. 



GUTTA-PERCHA. 

I Gutta-percha, low to medium. 



INDIA-RUBBER. 



Assam. 

Borneo. 

Central American. 

Madagascar. 

Mozambique. 



Cotton waste. 

Flax waste. 

Jute bagging, special. 



Negrohead. 
Para, fine. 
Pejru. 



Kitool fibre, brown. 



Wastes. 



Jute bagging, good, clean. 
Jute bagging, second quality, 
Jute cuttings. 



Aspen, dry, in sheets. 
Aspen, 50 per cent, moisture. 
Brown pine, dry. 

Brown pine, 50 per cent, moisture. 
Brown pine (half chemical), " Heosfos" 
brand, 50 per cent, moisture. 



Wood Pulps. 

Chemically prepared (acid), 50 per cent. 

moisture. 
Chemically prepared, bleached. 
Chemically prepared, unbleached. 
Ligneous meal (wood flour), selected. 
Ligneous meal (Avood flour), extra fine. 



92 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Ligneous meal (wood flour), fine. 

Pine, dry, in sheets. 

Pine (long fibre), 50 per cent, moisture. 



Pine, 50 per cent, moisture. 
Pine, 50 per cent, moisture (single 
sorted) . 



Straw Pulp. 



Straw pulp (bleached), 50 per cent. 

moisture. 
Straw pulp (bleached), 50 per cent. 

moisture, extra quality. 



These pulps are sold by the ton of dry 
weio'ht. 



Algerian (oran, etc.), first quality. 
Algerian (oran, etc.), second quality. 
Algerian (oran, etc.), third quality. 
Gabes, sfax, or skira, good average. 



Esparto-Grass. 

Spanish, fine to best. 
Tripoli, hand picked. 
Tripoli, fair average. 



Chemicals, Clays, Coloring Materials, Rosins, etc., employed in 
Paper-making. 



Alkali (quoted according to per cent.). 

Alum, ground. 

Alum, lump. 

Alum, pearl. 

Alum, porous. 

Aluminous, cake. 

Anti-chlorine. 

Bichromate of potash, American. 

Bleaching powders. 

Brazil wood. 

Catechu. 

Cochineal. 

Caustic soda (quoted according to the 

per cent.). 
Clay, China, English. 
Clay, China, "Star." 
Clay, South Carolina. 
Clay, Terra alba, American. 
Clay, Terra alba, French. 
Corn-starch. 
Copperas, American. 
Extract of logwood. 
Mineral, fibrous pulp. 



Orange mineral. 

Potato starch. 

Prussian blue. 

Prussiate potash. 

Rosins, common to good, strained. 

Rosins, good, No. 1. 

Rosins, good, No. 2. 

Rosins, low. 

Rosins, No. 1. 

Rosins, extra pale. 

Rosins, pale. 

Sal soda, caustic. 

Sal soda, English. 

Soluble blue. 

Spanish brown. 

Sugar of lead, brown. 

Sugar of lead, white. 

Sulphuric acid (quoted according to the 

per cent.). 
Venetian red. 
Vitriol, blue. 
Yellow ochre, Rochelle. 



PAPER-MAKrN"G MATERIALS. 



93 



Aniline Dyes, etc. 



Blue, paper, 1, 
Blue, paper, 2. 
Blue, ultramarine. 
Brown, Bismarck. 
Diamond, magneta. 
Eosine, pure. 
Green, fast, ISTo. 1. 
Green, fast. No. 2. 
Lac k la cochennille. 
Magenta crystals, pure. 
Magenta crystals, No. 2. 



Methyl blue. 

Methyl green. 

Methyl violet. 

Orange B. 

Paris blue. 

Red lake. 

Rocceline, pure (ftist red). 

Silk green. 

Violet, 2 B crystals. 

Violet, 2 B powder. 

Yellow, No. 6 P. 



94 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



CHAPTER IV. 

MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. 

We who live in the present day with our newspapers 
issued every twenty-four hours by the milHons, can form but 
an indistinct idea of what was the state of the art of paper 
manufacture even at so late a period as the commencement 
of the present century. Instead of paper being reeled off in 
webs many feet in width, and at the rate of nearly a mile 
in length in the hour, each sheet had at that time to be 
separately made on a mould by hand, and had then after- 
ward to be subjected to various processes before it was in a 
state suitable for use. 

To obtain an uniform and continuous supply of paper for 
any purpose was quite impossible, and the necessity of 
applying machinery to this manufacture was beginning to 
be urgently felt, and the success which had attended its 
introduction into the spinning and weaving industries gave 
encouragement to the paper manufacturer. Yet the entire 
change from a system of manufacture almost mediaeval in 
its rudeness has been comprised within the lifetime of many 
persons now living. 

Hand-made paper continues to be used for special pur- 
. poses; but, for serviceability, machine-made paper is un- 
doubtedly to be preferred. In Great Britain and on the 



MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. 95 

continent of Europe hand-made writing paper is more largely 
used than in the United States, and its present employment 
is owing in Europe largely to the conservatism of the people ; 
but affectation probably exerts as much influence as any 
other cause at home and abroad in maintaining the fashion 
of employing hand-made writing paper. 

There is now so little hand-made paper produced in the 
United States that a chapter devoted to the details of its 
manufacture is really of no practical value ; but in order 
that this volume may not seem incomplete a synopsis of the 
process of manufacturing paper by hand will be given. 

The preparation of the pulp for paper to be made either 
by hand or by machinery is identical, but as the paper pro- 
duced by the former method is usually of an expensive 
character, consequently only the finest qualities of rags are 
used. As the preparation of the pulp will be described 
later, we shall now only take it after it has issued from the 
beating engine, been stained and run into large chests from 
which the paper-maker's vat is supplied. The sheet of 
paper is moulded in the following manner : the vatman takes 
the mould, which consists of a framework of fine wire cloth 
having a " deckle" or movable rectangular frame of wood to 
keep the pulp from running off, and dipping the mould 
vertically into the pulp and bringing it up horizontally takes 
up a sufficient quantity to fill the deckle. The vatman then 
runs the pulp evenly over the mould from the front side to 
the back, the superfluous stuff being dropped into the vat, 
and then gives the mould the " shake," which motion being 
imparted so as to be felt in the length and across the mould 



96 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

causes the fibres of the stuff to intertwine and the water to 
pass through the openings in the wire-cloth, the sheet of 
paper being formed from the pulp which remains. The 
operation of moulding the paper requires great nicety, both 
in determining the thickness of the sheet and in imparting 
to it an uniform body throughout. 

The stuff in the vat is kept at the proper temperature by 
a copper or other contrivance placed within the vat, steam 
heat being communicated through a suitable pipe, the agita- 
tion of the stuff being accomplished by means of machinery 
also placed within the vat. 

After the sheet of paper is formed the vatman brings it to 
the stay, and removing the deckle applies it to a second 
mould and proceeds as before. An assistant, called a 
" coucher," takes the first mould and places it on an inclined 
elbow in order to cause more water to drain out of the sheet ; 
the coucher, having by his side a heap of porous pieces of 
flannel called " felts," next turns the mould over on one of 
them, leaving the sheet of paper on the felt, and then placing 
another felt on the damp sheet of paper, he is in readiness to 
turn over the sheet from the second mould. 

In this manner the two workmen proceed, the vatman 
moulding a sheet of paper and the coucher placing it upon 
a felt, until the pile, which is called a " post," contains six 
or eight quires. 

The post is then carried to the press, where it is subjected 
to a powerful pressure, which causes a large quantity of 
water to be removed from the paper, leaving the sheets 
sufficiently dry to be handled by the "layer," who lays one 



MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. 



97 



sheet upon another leaving out the felts, and after parting 
sheet from sheet subjects the heap to a moderate pressure. 

Fig. 1 shows the process of forming paper by hand, the 
vatman being in the act of giving the mould the " shake," 




and the coucher being represented turning a sheet of paper 
from the mould upon a felt ; the " post," which is partly 
built up, being so arranged as to be drawn to the press upon 
a gangway of rollers. 

The sheets after being pressed, as has been described, are 
next parted, and then hung in the drying loft, where the 
paper remains until dry, being placed in spurs five or six 
sheets tliick upon rope made from cow hair. 

The paper is next sized by passing the spurs through a 
trough containing a strong solution of gelatine, and then in 



98 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

order to free the paper from an excess of size it is placed 
upon an endless felt and carried to one end of the long size 
trough and passed between press rollers. In order to pre- 
vent the sheets from sticking together they are separated 
from each other and carried to the drying loft, and finally 
dried at a temperature of about 75° to 80° F. 

The paper is then examined, the damaged sheets being 
thrown out or the knots removed, and is next glazed by 
passing the sheets between plates, the paper being finally 
sorted and finished in much the same manner as machine- 
made paper, but with additional pains. After being neatly 
put up into quires, half reams, and reams, the hand-made 
paper is ready for market. 

The water-mark observable on almost all hand-made 
papers when held against the light is produced by wires 
representing the letters or design of the water-mark raised 
above the other portion of the mould, thus making the 
paper thinner in that part covered by the marking wires by 
indelibly stamping the device or devices in the substance of 
the sheet of paper during its formation from the pulp. 

Adams, Mass., is probably the only place in the United 
States where paper is now made by hand ; the quantity 
produced from each vat is from 190 to 200 pounds per day. 
But in Great Britain, where there exists a larger demand for 
this class of paper, the total production averages about 60 
tons per week. 



DISINFECTING RAGS. 99 



CHAPTER V. 

DISINFECTING RAGS PURCHASING RAGS. 

When cholera, or other infectious or contagious diseases, 
exist in foreign countries, or in portions of the United 
States, the health officers in charge of the various quar- 
antines in this country require that rags from countries and 
districts in which such diseases are prevalent shall be 
thoroughly disinfected before they are allowed to pass their 
stations. Rags shipped to Hull, Liverpool, London, Italian, 
or other ports, and re-shipped from such ports to the United 
States, are usually subjected to the same rule as if shipped 
direct from the ports of the country in which such diseases 

prevail. 

It is usually requisite that the disinfection shall be made 
at the storehouses in the port of shipment by boiling the 
rags several hours under a proper degree of pressure, or in 
a tightly closed vessel, or disinfected with sulphurous acid, 
which is evolved by burning at least two pounds of roll 
sulphur to every ten cubic feet of room space ; the apart- 
ment being kept closed for several hours after the rags are 
thus treated. Disinfection by boiling the rags is usually 
considered to be the best method. 

In the case of rags imported from India, Egypt, Spain, 
and other foreign countries where cholera is liable to become 



]00 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



epidemic, it is especially desirable that some efficient, rapid, 
and thorough process of disinfecting should be devised. In 
order to meet the quarantine requirements, it must be 
thorough and certain in its action, and in order that the 
lives of the workmen and of others in the vicinity may not 
be endangered by the liberating of active disease-germs, or 
exposure of decaying and deleterious matters, and that the 
delay, trouble, and expense of unbaling and rebaling may 
be avoided, it must be capable of use upon the rags while 
in the bale, and of doing its work rapidly when so used. 

The object of Messrs. Parker and Blackman's invention, 
shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, is to provide such a process for 




disinfecting rags and other fibrous materials while in the 
bale. 

Figure 2 shows a view of one form of apparatus adapted 
for use in carrying out their process. Fig. 3 is a longi- 



DISINFECTING RAGS. 



101 



tudinal sectional view, showing a bale of fibrous material as 
being acted npon ; and Fig. 4 is an end view of the bale, 
showing the relative positions of the injecting- tubes. 



Yis. 3. 




Fig. 4. 



D 



Qr--^ 



A designates a chamber provided at one end with an 
opening, B. to be closed by a door, (7, hinged at its lower 
edge, and adapted, when swung outward 
and downward, as shown in Fig. 2, to 
form a continuation of the floor of the 
interior of the chamber. A car, D, sup- 
ported upon suitable rollers or casters, D' 
D\ is adapted to be run forward and back 
over the floor of the chamber, and when 
the door is swung down, as described above, out upon said 
door as a continuation of the floor. This car is shown pro- 
vided with means for clamping and holding firmly a bale, E^ 



^ 



©-a^- 



102 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

of the material to be treated, and is caused to travel back 
and forth within the chamber and out through the door, 
when the latter is opened. 

Just beyond the closed inner end of the chamber A is 
another chamber or receptacle, F, into which is to be forced 
any desired kind of disinfectant gas or liquid under pressure. 
This liquid or gas can be forced or fed into chamber F, and 
put under pressure in any desired way or by any preferred 
means. Through the forward wall of this chamber or 
receptacle, and through suitable stuffing-boxes, G, therein, 
pass the hollow rotary shafts H IT, of any desired number, 
having their bores in communication with the interior of the 
chamber. One of these shafts is continued through the other 
or rear wall of the chamber, and connected with suitable 
means for causing it to revolve in either direction as desired. 
The hollow shafts pass forward through and are journaled 
in suitable long journal-bearings, //, in the inner wall of 
the chamber A. The portions of the shafts within the 
chamber A are closed and pointed at their forward ends, 
screw-threaded throughout their lengths, and provided with 
series of small openings communicating with their central 
bores. Each shaft is formed with a collar, /*, bearing against 
the inner or forward end of the shaft-bearing to prevent any 
backward movement of the shaft. Just outside of the wall 
of chamber A the shafts are provided with intermeshing 
gear-wheels, so that when one of them is rotated, as indicated 
above, the others will be revolved an equal number of times. 
The threads of the screws are so constructed that as the main 
driven screw is turned so as to screw it into anything brought 



DISINFECTING RAGS. 103 

against its point the other screws will by their gears be 
turned to screw them in also. 

The mechanism for feeding forward the carriage with the 
bale fastened thereon is so connected with the gears on the 
shafts that the bale is fed against the end of the revolving screws 
and then continuously forward or inward as they are screwed 
into it. After the perforated screws have been driven fully 
into the bale, the door having been previously shut to close 
the chamber A tightly, disinfectant gas or liquid — preferably 
gas — is forced into chamber F, and from there out through 
the series of screws projecting into the bale. The gas then 
passes out through the openings in the screws, and is forced 
to pass in every direction through the mass of the bale, so as 
to come into intimate contact with every portion thereof, and 
effectually destroy every germ among the fibres of the 
material. 

As most fibrous materials, and especially rags, are baled so 
as to be in layers, the inventors so place the bale to be treated 
on the carriage that the perforated screws shall penetrate it in 
directions at right angles to the layers, as shown best in Fig. 3. 
By so doing it is insured that the gas or liquid used, issuing 
through the holes in the screws, shall pass in all directions 
throughout the bale, so as to come in contact with and act 
upon every portion of the material in every layer. When 
the material is in layers, if the screws were inserted into the 
bale in directions parallel with the layers, the gas or liquid 
would be apt to pass out between such layers as the screws 
projected between, thus leaving much of the material not 
properly acted upon. When, however, the bale is not 



104 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

stratified in its formation, the screws can be forced into it in 
any direction desired. 

Upon the top of the chamber J. is a receptacle or tank, 
K^ containing disinfecting liquid, L. At one end of this 
tank a pipe, M^ leads upward from the interior of chamber 
J. to a point within the tank above the level of the liquid, 
and is then bent over and carried down into the liquid. A 
discharge opening or pipe, iV, is provided on top of this tank 
at or near its end. With this construction all the air and 
gas passing up out of the chamber J., as gas or liquid is 
forced into and through the bale, must pass through the 
disinfectant liquid in the tank K^ so that any disease-germs 
contained or floating in it will be, it is claimed, effectually 
rendered harmless. When a sufficient amount of disinfect- 
ant has been forced into and through the bale, the disinfect- 
ant is turned off and cold dry air is forced into the chamber 
or receptacle F^ and from thence out through the per- 
forated screws or nozzles and the bale. 

Any desired means can be used for compressing and cool- 
ing the air and forcing it into the chamber. This air, pass- 
ing through the bale, cools and dries it, and then, as it issues 
from the bale and fills the disinfecting chamber, drives the 
foul air and gases from such chamber up and out through 
the disinfecting liquid in tank K. Only a very short time, 
it is claimed, is required to thus cool and dry the bale and 
drive out all the foul air from chamber A, so that it will be 
perfectly safe to open and enter the latter. The screws are 
caused to rotate, so as to be unscrewed or withdrawn from 
the bale, the carriage-moving mechanism being at the same 



DISINFECTING RAGS. 105 

time actuated so as to move the carriage backward and out- 
ward, so that the bale can be removed therefrom. 

This process is claimed to be adapted not only to destroy 
all disease-germs, but also to destroy all foul and injurious 
gases and odors in the bale or arising therefrom. The decay 
of any vegetable or animal matter mingled with the material 
of the bale, it is claimed, will be arrested, and such deleterious 
matter rendered inert and incapable of injury to the health 
of those handling the bale or the material thereof after the 
bale has been opened. 

Instead of using perforated hollow screws, as described 
and shown, the inventors contemplate using hollow perfo- 
rated spindles to be thrust into the bale, either with or with- 
out rotary motion. Any suitable form of disinfectant can be 
used by this process, as, for instance, sulphurous acid in the 
gas or in solution, hot air, superheated steam, carbolic acid, 
any of the well-known solutions or vapors containing 
chlorine or sulphur, or, if desired, a solution containing a 
very small portion of corrosive sublimate. When the disin- 
fectant is in the form of a solution, it can be used as a 
liquid or mixed with air in the form of spray or vapor, 
which can be forced through the perforated nozzles into the 
bale. 

In lieu of injecting the disinfectant into the bale and 
causing it to permeate outward, the disinfectant can be 
caused to pass inward into and be drawn off from within 
the mass of material. In carrying out this modified process 
the disinfectant is fed in any desirable way into the disinfect- 
ing chamber around the bale, and the perforated tubular 



106 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

nozzles or screws having been previously inserted into the 
bale in the same manner as shown and described hereinbe- 
fore, a vacuum is produced by any desirable means in the 
chamber, with the interior of which the outer ends of the 
bores of the nozzle communicate, as described. The disin- 
fectant within the disinfecting chamber surrounding the bale 
will then be drawn inward through the bale to the perfo- 
rated nozzles and out through them into the vacuum 
chamber. From thence the gases and vapors are drawn off 
by any suitable means and passed through a disinfecting 
tank or apparatus of any well-known construction. The 
disinfectant, after a sufficient quantity of it has been drawn 
through the bale, is shut off and cool dry air admitted to the 
disinfecting chamber instead, and also drawn in through the 
bale and out through the nozzles and a disinfecting tank or 
apparatus. 

Instead of causing the disinfectant, and subsequently the 
cool air, to pass inward through the bale and thence out 
through the nozzles by suction, the disinfecting chamber can 
be made strong enough to stand considerable pressure, and 
the disinfectant and afterward the air can be forced under 
pressure into it and around the bale. By such pressure the 
disinfectant or air can be caused to penetrate the bale from 
all sides inward to the perforated nozzles within it and then 
to pass outward through them. Either of these processes 
may be used, if desired. 



purchasing rags. 107 

Purchasing Rags. 

The purchasing of rags for a paper-mill requires great 
experience, as there are so many tricks and frauds practised 
in making the bales, that even the most lynx-eyed and ex- 
perienced buyers often find numerous weight-giving sub- 
stances in the interior of the bales after they are opened. 
There is, of course, no way to discover these frauds until the 
rags are about to be used, and the only safeguard against 
such dishonesty is the exercise of caution in regard to the 
persons from whom the rags are purchased, and should the 
sellers refuse to make reasonable allowances for such fraudu- 
lent overweighting of the bales, good grounds would then 
exist for seeking to find more honorable dealers. 

Such frauds will exist just so long as paper-makers sub- 
mit to them without vigorous protest — but no longer. 

The color and strength of the materials determine the 
value of the rags ; city rags being easily distinguished from 
country rags by their respective colors and textures, city 
rags being fine and white, and country rags coarse and dark. 

If there be ground for reasonable suspicion that the rags 
have been unduly weighted with water it is advisable to 
weigh and then dry a lot of them either by spreading them 
in the rays of the sun or in a heated room and afterwards 
re weighing them. The quantity of moisture contained in 
the rags is indicated by the difierence between their wet and 
dry weights. The natural humidity of rags varies from 5 to 
7 per cent., being greater in coarse rags than in fine ones, 
and no greater allowance than this should be made. Linen 



108 ^ THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

rags not uncommonly contain jute and cotton ; the jute 
being very undesirable as it injures the color of the paper. 
The presence of jute in linen may be ascertained by washing 
and treating with dilute chlorine, when the jute will become 
of a reddish color and the linen white. Cotton in linen is 
quickly destroyed by treating the rags with concentrated 
sulphuric acid, which does not injure the linen fibres but 
leaves them white and opaque. The gummy matter is 
removed by washing, and the sulphuric acid is neutralized 
by the addition of a small quantity of caustic potash. 

By drying the rags and treating as above, and then re- 
drying after separating the jute or destroying the cotton the 
per cent, of admixtures can be readily determined. 



SORTING RAGS. 109 



CHAPTER VI. 

SORTING RAGS SORTING WASTE PAPER SORTING OR "DRY 

picking" esparto — MACHINE FOR FACILITATING THE SORTING 
OF PAPER STOCK. 

Some manufacturers after opening the bales pass the rags 
through a machine for the purpose of removing the dust, 
sand, and other adhering matters. This treatment of the 
rags makes them much less objectionable to the sorters and 
cutters whose eyesight and health are better preserved there- 

by- 

The next operation through which the rags, waste papers, 
rope, and like materials used for paper stock pass is that 
of sorting according to fibre and color. Raw, coarse 
materials used for paper stock are more wasteful in treat- 
ment than iine city rags, and the same manipulations neces- 
sary to reduce the former to useful stock would prove 
destructive to the latter. The sorting of the raw material 
is, consequently, an important branch of the paper trade. 
In Europe a more minute classification is adopted than in 
the United States ; but on the Continent the assortment and 
classification of rags are much more simple than in either 
Great Britain or America. This department of the work 
should be conducted on simple and easily-remembered 
principles in order to facilitate the labor and save time. 



110 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



It is not possible to describe any system of assorting and 
classifiying rags that would be generally acceptable, as every 
country, and almost every mill, follows a different one in 
order to conform to particular circumstances. The follow- 
ing distinctions are, however, commonly made : — 



According to Fibre : — • 
Linen. 
Hemp. 
Cotton. 
Manilla. 
Half wool, or w^oollens. 



According to Color : — 

White, first, second, 

third. 
Gray. 
Blue. 
Red. 
Black, containing all 

dark colors. 



Bagging, canvas, ropes, threads, twine, etc., are also sepa- 
rately classified. 

After the rags are assorted, whether uncut or cut, a fore- 
man usually inspects them after they are spread out on a 
larse table in order to control the work of the women 
employed in this department. 

Sometimes the labor of sorting the rags can be materially 
facilitated by the use of mechanical contrivances. The 
invention shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 is intended to facilitate 
the sorting of paper stock. 



Sorting Waste Paper. 

When waste paper has been removed from the bale 
it should at once be passed through a devil and duster. 



SORTING WASTE PAPER. Ill 

Some mills use a railroad duster connected by an apron with 
an open cylinder duster. 

After the material has been opened up and the adhering 
impurities removed it is ready for the sorting-rooms, which 
are of the same general appearance as those in which rags 
are sorted ; but the tables, however, are without knives, as 
waste papers do not require to be cut. 

The sorters are required to sort out everything which has 
not once befen white pulp, and remove all book covers, book- 
marks, toothpicks, matches, cigar stumps, scraps of leather, 
bits of wood, and other foreign substances which gravi- 
tate so naturally into the waste-paper basket and thence 
into the chifFonnier's bundle. 

The dealers are not always to be relied upon to do the 
sorting properly, and should .pieces of yellow straw or dark 
wrapping paper be reduced to pulp along with the white 
paper they will reappear in the finished product in the form 
of yellow, gray, or colored spots. 

Papers made from some kinds of wood, esparto, etc., turn 
to a yellow-brown color during the bleaching, and as they 
cannot be made into first quality paper it is necessary to sort 
them out, and if the eye and touch are not to be relied upon 
such papers should be dipped into a bucket containing a 
strong solution of soda. If the soda does not change the 
color of the paper it is thrown with the No. 1 stock ; but if 
it turns yellow or brown under the test it is sorted out for 
inferior stock. 

No uniform classification in the. grading of waste paper is 



112 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in use in the sorting-room; the grading depending upon the 
custom of individual mills. 

Means are shown in Figs. 68, 70, 71, and 72 whereby "im- 
perfections" in large quantities can be assorted and delivered 
to the duster with the uniformity required to fully and 
properly supply it. 

Sorting or " Dry Picking" Esparto. 

The first process to which esparto is subjected after being 
delivered at the mill is that of " dry picking," which opera- 
tion is usually performed by girls who work at separate 
tables placed in a long row, A coarse iron-wire screen 
forms a portion of the top of each table, and on this gauze 
each girl spreads small bunches of esparto and picks out 
such imperfections as pieces of weed, root-ends, etc., while 
the smaller and heavier impurities, such as sand, etc., fall 
through the openings of the wire screen into a receptacle 
placed under the table. " Dry picking" is a term used in 
contradistinction to "wet picking" which is a subsequent 
process employed after the boiling. In some of the mills in 
Great Britain a machine is used for facilitating the labor of 
dry picking. The esparto is first passed through a fan 
duster and is then carried forward on an endless belt, the 
roots, etc., being removed by girls stationed on each side of 
the machine. The root-ends, etc., are very hard to boil 
and bleach, and, in addition to injuring the color of the 
bulk of the fibre, they are liable to make their appearance 
in the finished paper in the form of dark-colored spots, 



FACILITATING THE SORTING OF PAPER STOCK. 113 

technically known as "sheave." After the grass has been 
properly sorted it is carried to the boiler-house. 

Machine for Facilitating the Sorting of Paper Stock. 

Messrs. Robert O. and Walter Moorhouse, of Philadel- 
phia, are the inventors of the machine shown in Figs. 5, 6, 
and 7, for facilitating the sorting of materials used for paper 
stock, which has for its object the turning over and loosening 
of the same and passing them steadily upon a screen before 
the eyes of the operatives, whose attention being relieved of 
the labor of spreading, opening, and removing the paper- 
making materials, are enabled to more quickly and thor- 
oughly sort them. 

This invention consists in an endless travelling screen of 
wire-cloth supported upon and moved by suitable rollers 
turned by power, upon which the stock is placed near one 
end, and a series of rotating vanes, also turned by power, 
which, by sweeping over the top of the screen, rub the stock 
upon it and open it, thus spreading it in view of the opera- 
tives and letting much of the dirt and grit fall through the 
screen. The operatives, being stationed along the sides of 
the screen, between the several vanes, remove objectionable 
objects that do not pass through the screen, and the desira- 
ble stock, being carried to the end, is discharged by having 
several operatives each taking out a particular kind or color 
of material, and they are thus very expeditiously sorted. 

Fig. 5 is a top view of the machine. Fig. 6 a front view, 
and Fig. 7 an end view. 



114 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 




Fiff. 7. 



A is an endless apron of wire-cloth, supported by rollers, 
B and B', at the ends of the frame C, and smaller inter- 
mediate rollers, D D, upon its 
upper portion, and rollers, U E, 
on the lower portion ; a roller, 
F, supported and turning in 
bearings formed in the ends of 




m ^ or- 



< the levers G, pivoted at G' to 
the frame (7, by which the 
apron A is pressed toward the 
roller B by the action of 
weights, H, on the opposite end of the levers G^ so that by 



FACILITATING THE SORTING OF PAPER STOCK. 115 

applying power by a band to the pulley J on the shaft i?^ of 
the roller B the adhesion or friction of the apron A upon 
the roller B will be sufficient to cause the apron to move in 
the direction of the arrows in Fig. 5, without subjecting the 
entire length of the apron A to such severe strain as would 
be requisite were it strained by tightening the roller B . 

KKsiie standards or frames secured to the frame (7 at 
intervals, and support shafts, K\ turning in bearings in the 
standards K by means of pulleys, K^, and having vanes, /iT'^ 
preferably made of sheet metal, and provided with edges of 
leather, rubber cloth, or similar yielding material, which are 
of such dimensions as to sweep the apron A. Strips or rims, 
L i, are placed at each side of the apron A, which serve to 
prevent the stock spreading laterally beyond the reach of 
the vanes K^ and falling off the apron A. 

The operation of the machine is as follows: Power is 
applied to the pulleys B^ and K'^; the materials are placed 
on the apron A at the place marked if, and passing, by the 
motion of the apron A, under the vanes K^, are rubbed over 
the apron, and any grit and sand detached from them falls 
through the apron, and the stock, by the rubbing, becoming 
opened and spread out before operators stationed at N N N 
between the reels JT^, are readily sorted by the operators re- 
moving such as is not desired to pass through the machine, 
and the remaining acceptable materials pass off at the end 
of the apron J., at the point 0, ready for use as paper stock. 

In the illustrations only three reels or sets of revolving 
vanes are shown ; but in practice a larger number are used. 



116 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and a greater number of operatives than three are employed, 
the machine being much longer than shown, as is implied 
by the break in Fig. 6, the increased length of machine in- 
volving a mere duplication of the parts shown. 



CUTTING RAGS BY HAND. 117 



CHAPTER VII. 

CUTTING RAGS BY HAND CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY LIST 

OF PATENTS FOR RAG CUTTERS AND DUSTERS — CUTTING WOOD 

FOR CHEMICAL FIBRE — TREATING WOOD BEFORE GRINDING 

VOELTEr's MACHINE FOR CUTTING OR GRINDING WOOD — LIST 

of patents for wood grinders corn-husk cutter. 

Cutting Rags by Hand. 

When the stock is cut by hand the operation is usually 
performed by drawing the rags against the sharp edge of a 
scythe-like knife measuring about 14 inches in height above 
the table. The contrivance shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10 is 
the invention of Mr. Edgar D. Aldrich, of Pittsfield, Mass., 
and consists of a device for securely holding the section of 
scythe-blade used to cut rags in paper-mills, and in such a 
way that it can readily be detached to be ground or reversed, 
and can be tightened in place easily and quickly, and by 
mechanism arranged to be entirely out of the way of the 
operator, and that cannot catch in the rags. 

Fig. 8 is a side elevation of the holder ; Fig. 9 is a rear 
elevation, and Fig. 10 is a section. 

The holder proper, B^ is of cast metal, in one piece, and 
has a flat base to bear against the side of the table, to which 
it is attached by means of bolts passing through holes left in 



118 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



the flanges h 5, as seen in Fig. 8. The sides of the holder, 
which may be made as light as is consistent with strength, 
support the top C and bottom i), which afford the two 



Fijr. 8. 




Fiff. D. 



Fi<T. 10. 





bearings, d g, to the scythe-blade IT. These openings, d g, 
in the top C and bottom D form a triangular shape to 
conform to a cross-section of the blade II, and are relatively 
arranged to give the desired inclination to the blade when 
in place ; and the blade II, when in bearings in the shell, is 
as firm as though seated in a solid block of the same thick- 
ness as the holder B. The scythe-blade II, when in place 



. CUTTING RAGS BY HAND. 119 

within the holder, is grasped by the holt hook L, the screw- 
shank of which passes through the holder to the outside 
through the nut 0, and the thumb-nut TF enables the scythe- 
blade H to be tightened or released at will. As the greatest 
pressure is exerted upon the blade to remove it from its top 
bearing the hook L is arranged, as shown in Fig. 8, to grasp 
the scythe at a point nearer the bearing d. 

In the holder in common use, in which the blade is held 
in a staple by wedges, and has the staple drawn against the 
table by a bolt passing through the latter to the front, the 
nut necessary to secure the end of the bolt interferes with 
the operator, and the wrench to loosen it has to be detached 
when not in use, and fragments of wooden wedges are liable 
to become mixed with the rags, and the wedges require 
frequent adjustment ; but in the above-described device all 
inconveniences are claimed to be done away with, and a 
broad flat surface flush with the surface of the work-table 
forms a base to the cutting edge of the blade. 

In Fig. 1 1 is shown the manner in which the operation of 
cutting the rags by hand is conducted. The wire-cloth 
covering the top of the table is quite coarse, containing only 
about nine meshes to the square inch, thus allowing any 
dirt and flne particles from the rags to fall into a receptacle 
under the work-table. A casual visitor to the assorting and 
cutting room of a paper-mill would be impressed by the 
sang-froid exhibited by the women and girls who stand 
behind the scythes busily shredding handfuls of rags by 
drawing them down the keen edge of the blades, and the 
rapidity with which the handfuls of shreds are thrown into 



120 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



the compartments of the cutting table according to their 
fineness. Should a slip occur a terrible gash to the arm or 
hand of the operator is the result and possibly a finger is cut 



Fiff. 11. 




off. The air of these cutting rooms is usually heavy with 
dust, and in order to protect the hair each operator has her 
head swathed in a handkerchief In mills where fine papers 
are made it is necessary that every seam and hem and patch 
shall be ripped up in order that the dirt underneath may 
soak out ; and every button, hook and eye, and string must 
be cut off, the pins and needles picked out and any piece 
found to be badly stained or containing India rubber thrown 
out. 

In preparing rags for shipment some attention is paid to 
their condition and classification by foreign dealers, and in 
the case of best cotton and linen rags they are usually per- 
fectly clean when they arrive at the mill, and do not require 
the " dusting" after shredding which is given to poorer 
stock. 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 121 

When the rags are cut by machinery it is, of course, not 
possible to give them the minute attention which they 
receive in the hand method of cutting, nor can the objection- 
able matters mentioned be so readily separated from them. 

Cutting Rags by Machinery. 

Rags for paper stock have heretofore been " stripped" — 
that is cut or torn into strips — by hand. This method of 
stripping is both slow and expensive. Cross-cutting, which 
is the cutting of the strips into small pieces, has been 
accomplished both by hand and by machinery, the cross- 
cutting for the finer grades of paper being done by hand and 
for the coarser grades by machinery. The machinery used, 
however, has not been adapted to cut the materials with a 
sufficient degree of regularity, and after being cut the stock 
has not been reduced to the size which is most desirable in 
the various manipulations to which it is afterwards subjected, 
and the present construction of these cross-cutting machines 
is such that, however carefully they may be operated, a pro- 
duct of uniform size cannot be obtained. Attempts have 
been made to strip and cross-cut without an intermediate 
handling by connecting two machines. With this arrange- 
ment, however, it has been necessary to reduce the rags first 
by hand to a size adapted for the machine, and no positive 
means of conveying the strips from one cutter to the other 
has been provided ; but the material has been deposited 
upon an apron, and conveyed by it to a chute through 
which they pass, and are deposited upon a second apron, 



122 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

which conveys them to the second cutter. The manner in 
which the rags are thus presented to the second cutter 
depends upon chance, and they are as liable to be cut in one 
direction as another. This defect is found in almost every 
machine — i. e., it has been necessary to first prepare the rags 
by hand cutting or stripping for the machine, and the feed 
has not been positive and has not been within the control of 
the operator, either as to the manner of presenting the mate- 
rial to the cutting device, or as to regulating the size to 
which the material is cut. 

Taylor^s Machine. 

Mr. C. F. Taylor, of Springfield, Mass., has invented a 
process of and apparatus for stripping rags by machinery, 
and claims to obtain thereby a product of uniform or approxi- 
mately uniform size. It is also claimed for the apparatus 
that it will both strip and cross-cut the stock at the same 
operation, and at the same time remove foreign matter from 
the rags. 

Fig. 12 is a side view of Taylor's machine with the pulleys 
and gears removed, disclosing the portions of the machine 
which operate upon the rags. Fig. 13 is a sectional view of 
the same. Fig. 14 is a plan or top view. Figs. 15, 16, and 
17 are detail views of the rotary cutters. Fig. 18 is a sec- 
tional view of the sieve. Fig. 19 is a top view of the 
sectional beater-bars. Fig. 20 is a side view of the feed- 
ing device, with parts in section, and Figs. 21, 22, 23, 24, 
and 25 are detail views of the parts of the feeding device. 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 



123 



i i represent pressure-rolls, which are also adapted to act 
as feed-rolls. 

a represents a revolving blade, adapted to cut the rags in 
strips, h h represent rotary cutters or shears in gangs, 
adapted to make a shearing cut. c represents a beater 




adapted to beat or pound the material against the beater-bar 
e as it is fed to it by the feed- roll d. The operation of the 
machine is as follows : — 

The rags being fed upon the apron m are carried in the 
direction indicated by the arrow, and are fed to the pressure- 



124 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



rolls i, which are adapted to crush any hard substance. 
These rolls also act as feed-rolls, holding and feeding the 
material to the cutter a, which, revolving as indicated, 
carries the material against the fixed knife t, thus separating 
the rags into narrow strips. This operation is termed 



Fiff. 13. 




" stripping." It will readily be seen that by changing the 
position of the knives — i. e., placing the cutters h ahead of 
the cutters a — the stripping will be accomplished by these 
cutters and the cross-cutting by the cutter a. After being 
cut in strips the rags fall to the apron /, which, moving in 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 

Fig. 14. 



125 




the direction indicated, carries the rags to the knives 5, where 
they are cut in a direction across the cut of the first knife. 
It will be observed that the first knife cuts the material in a 



126 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



ri<j. 18. 




Fior, 19. 




liil UU. iiiUILililliJILiiiUiLJiii'' 
Fig. 20. 




CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 



127 



direction parallel with the axis of the revolving knife, and 

that the strips, falling as cut, are deposited lying in the same 

direction upon the apron /, and are 

thus by a positive feed carried and 

delivered to the rotary cutters 5, 

where the strips are separated into 

short pieces. 

The size to which the material is 
cut by the first knife may be varied 
by varying the feed, or by varying 
the rapidity of the revolution of the 
cutter a, and the size to which the 
material is cut by the cutters h is varied by varying the dis- 
tance of separation of the blades. The size to which the 
stock is reduced may therefore be easily controlled by the 
operative. 

To do away with the objection which might exist of the 
knives h wearing unevenly, the inventor revolves one set 




Fis. 22. 



Fig. 25. 



J=IJJ=LLLli 



Fitr. 24. 



Fig. 23. 




a trifle faster than the other, thus distributing the wear over 
the whole surface of the cutting-faces. 



128 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

To assist in the feed of the rotary cutters, the edge is 
corrugated, as shown in Fig. 17, of either one or both sets of 
cutters. 

The beater-bar is made in sections, as shown in Fig. 19, 
each section, e, being held in position by a spring. Thus, if 
a thick piece or bunch of cloth pass through and force a 
portion of the bar from the beater, the other portions are 
not affected. The sieve has a vibratory motion, and is pro- 
vided with flails, x, which lie loosely upon the bottom of the 
sieve, being held in place by cords, z, or other like means. 
The rags, being fed in the sieve at its upper end, pass down 
the incline between the wire bottom and the flails. The 
rapid motion of the sieve causes the flails to rise and fall, 
thus striking the material and pounding out the dust and 
foreign matter in its passage through the sieve. 

The feeding device illustrated in Fig. 20 consists of an 
endless belt provided with hooks or pins which project from 
the surface, and when the point of delivery is reached, 
retreat below the surface, thus completely freeing the rag. 
The rags are deposited in the hopper, and as the pins pass 
upward through them they catch the cloth and draw it in 
the direction of the moving belt. This construction — i. e., a 
feed taking from the bottom — is of material advantage in 
many respects. Clogging is avoided, as the pin being 
loaded at the bottom and thus covered, passes through the 
mass without any addition. The tendency of the mass is to 
roll from the apron at the top and toward the apron at the 
bottom. The pressure of the rags in the hopper tends to 
hold the rag which is being drawn from the mass, thus 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 129 

materially aiding in opening and straightening out the knots 
and bunches in which the rags are frequently found. A 
roll, u, located at the bottom of the hopper, revolves slowly 
toward the belt, thus keeping the throat filled. 

The pin is constructed as shown in Fig. 23, it being 
pivoted to a frame, which frame is secured to the belt. The 
position occupied by the pin when out is shown in dotted 
lines, and when withdrawn in full lines. The rolls r are 
grooved to permit the pins and boxes to pass, as shown in 
Figs. 21 and 22. The rolls ?•' permit the pin to pass, while 
the roll r is grooved only sufficiently to allow the box to 
pass, the pin being held projecting. The projecting hooks 
catch the rags on their passage through the hopper and 
retain their hold until reaching the roll r' at the top of the 
frame, where the pin is permitted to retreat, and the material 
being released, is deposited upon a belt or feed-rolls, as may 
be desired. The belt may be strained on the rolls, but it is 
preferable to secure the links (shown in Fig. 25) to the edges 
of the belt, and provide spur-wheels at each end of one or 
more of tlie rolls, which spurs will engage with the links 
and move the belt. 

Heretofore the blades or cutters for cutting rags have 
either been made wholly of steel or were provided with steel 
facing or cutting-edges. The objection to this construction 
is that the steel is carried away in fibres or threads. Mr. 
Taylor substitutes for steel a cutter made wholly of charcoal- 
iron chilled. This gives a cutter of sufficient hardness, and 
the wear or loss is in the form of a very fine powder, leaving 
a sharp cutting-edge. To increase the capacity of the 



130 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

macliine a set of cutters is arranged at the opposite side of 
the frame, similar to the first set, and feed to the second 
cutters on an apron, as indicated in dotted Hues. 

The feed-rolls may be either smooth or roughened. It is 
preferable, however, to use rolls having roughened or corru- 
gated surfaces, and provide means to force them together for 
the purpose of crushing and breaking such foreign matter as 
may be loosened in this manner. 

In this machine the inventor uses two sets of cutters of 
different construction, for the reason that the machinery 
that would otherwise be required to turn the strips and 
present them in proper manner to the cross-cutters is avoided. 
A machine is thus constructed having a direct and positive 
feed. 

Baumann^s Machine. 

Most rag-cutting machines in use in the mills of the 
United States are constructed on the shearing principle, the 
bed-knife presenting a cutting edge to the revolving knife. 
There is another form of rag-cutting machine which works 
with an oscillatory reciprocating movement. This is un- 
doubtedly the best principle for a rag-cutter, as the rags are 
less torn than by the other methods, and machines of this 
character can be used for all the different grades of stock 
from the finest rags to the coarsest rope. 

The trade objection to cutters of this character is that they 
cannot be made to perform as much work in a given time 
as those cutters having revolving knives. Rag-cutters 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 



131 



having revolving knives cut with less intermission than 
those having an oscillatory reciprocating motion, as there is 



Fig;. 26. 



Fig. 27. 




considerable time lost in the upward 
movement of the cutting knife in the 
latter class of machines. 

Baumann's invention, shown in Figs. «/»^ 
26, 27, and 28, consists in a rag-cutting 
machine having a reciprocating knife 
which is connected by a pivoted link 




132 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

with the machme-frame, whereby an oscillatory recipro- 
cating movement is given to the knife, w^iich thus makes 
a vertical shearing cut. 

Fig. 26 is a front elevation of the rag-cutting machine 
invented by Louis Baumann, of Offenburgh, Germany. 
Fig. 27 is a longitudinal elevation of the same. Fig. 28 is 
a detail cross-sectional elevation of part of the same. 

The main shaft A is journaled in the top of a standard, B, 
and in a bracket-arm, G, of the said standard, and between 
the standard and the end of the arm a loose and a fixed belt- 
pulley, D D\ are mounted on the shaft, which is also pro- 
vided with a fly-wheel, E. On one end, the shaft A is pro- 
vided with a crank, F, on the pin of which the upper end 
of the T-stiaped knife-beam G is fitted, the ends of the 
cross-piece of the knife-beam being guided by vertical guides, 
H, on the frame B. The knife J is bolted to the knife-beam 
G. A connecting-link, K, is pivoted to the knife-beam G 
and to the frame B. The rags rest on a bed-plate, Z, along 
the edge of which the knife J cuts. Directly above the bed- 
plate a feeding-roller, M, is journaled, which is grooved 
longitudinally, or provided with ribs, or roughened in any 
suitable manner. 

On one end of the shaft of the feed-roller M a rachet- 
wheel, N, is mounted, with which a pawl, 0, is adapted to 
engage, which pawl is pivoted in one end of a rocking lever, 
P, pivoted on the shaft of the feed-roller. To the opposite 
end of the lever P a connecting-rod, Q, is held adjustably, 
the upper end of which rod is held adjustably in a trans- 
verse groove, R, in the flat surface of a bevel cog-wheel, S, 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 133 

engaging with a bevelled cog-wheel, T^ on that end of the 
shaft A opposite the one on which the crank i^is fixed. 

The operation is as follows : The crank F gives the 
knife-beam a reciprocating movement and the link /Ogives 
it an oscillating movement, so that the knife-beam will have 
an oscillatory reciprocating movement, and will make a 
vertical cut which at the same time is a shearing cut whereby 
the rags will be cut very finely and will not be torn, and 
the raising of dust will be avoided. The feed-roller M is 
revolved slightly after each cut, and feeds the rags the 
required distance to the cutter. The feeding device can 
easily be adjusted to feed a greater or lesser length of the rags 
after each cut. 

Cdbiirn^s MacJiine for Cutting JRags, etc., or Materials 
containing Metallic and other Substances. 

The object of the machine shown in Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 
33, 34, and 35, the invention of Messrs. Lemuel and Jehiel 
E. Coburn, of Worcester, Mass., is to provide means for 
cutting or severing old corsets, paper-stock, rags, etc., or 
materials having whalebones, steels, buttons, eyelets, or 
other hard substances, incorporated in their structure. 

Fig. 29 is a plan view of the cutting machine. Fig. 30 
is a vertical section of the same at line x x. Fig. 31 is a 
rear end view of the machine. Fig. 32 is a longitudinal 
sectional view, showing the arrangement of the cutters upon 
their rotating shafts. Fig. 33 is a side view of one of the 
cutter disks on a larger scale. Fig. 34 is an edge view of the 
same, and Fig. 35 is a side view of one of the clearer-bars. 



134 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Fifv 20. Fiff. 30. 




—z- 




Fiir. 3 1 . 




A denotes the frame, of proper form and material, and 
provided with suitable bearings for supporting the operative 
parts. 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 135 

B indicates the driving-shaft, mounted on the npper part 
of the frame, and provided with pulleys, 5^ for the driving- 
belt. 

Fig. 33. Fis. 34. Fia;. 35. 




C^5 -r 



"■-VvvA^^^ 



G G indicate the cutter-shaft, on which are mounted the 
counters or shearing-disks i), of which the working-cylinders 
are composed. Said shafts are journaled in bearings on 
the frame -4, one of them being provided with a gear, G\ 
that meshes with a pinion, 5, on shaft B for operating the 
cylinders when shaft B is set in motion. Shafts G and G 
may be geared together, or one of said shafts may be left 
free to be revolved by the friction or interaction of the 
cutters D of the opposite cylinder. The cutter-disks D are 
made in the form shown in Figs. 33 and 34, with a central 
eye or opening, i)^ to fit over the shaft (7, and with a series 
of depressions, teeth, or serrations, c?, about the periphery. 
Said disks may be made from plate steel, or may be punched 
from sheet iron, and case-hardened after the teeth d have 
been found. The disks are preferably about one-fourth of an 
inch in thickness for ordinary work, although the inventors 
do not confine themselves to any particular dimensions, as 
the size of the disks may be varied as required. The cutters 
or disks D are slipped on to the shafts G (7, alternating with 
each other on the respective shafts, as indicated, the cutters 



136 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

on the upper shaft being separated at their edges by the 
cutters on the lower shaft, and vice versa. Said cutters are 
retained laterally by a collar or shoulder, c, fixed upon the 
shaft at one end of the cylinder, and by nuts, e, screwed 
on to the shaft at the opposite end, as illustrated, so as to 
confine the cutters within a given limit of the length of the 
shaft (7, the cutters or disks being free to adjust themselves 
within said limit to the space intermediate between the 
cutters of the other cylinder. Thus the edge of the cutters 
of the upper cylinder interact wdth and serve to keep sepa- 
rate the cutters of the lower cylinder, and vice versa, while 
all of the notched edges or peripheral angles of the several 
disks D on one cylinder or shaft G shear past or against the 
adjacent edges or angles of the disks on the opposite shaft 
or cylinder when the mechanism is rotated^ thus effecting a 
series of stripping cuts corresponding in width to the respec- 
tive thicknesses of the disks or cutters. The eye D'^ of the 
cutters D and the shafts C are made of corresponding irregu- 
lar shape, or with a flattened side, as at m, or provided with 
some equivalent means for retaining them in position, and 
preventing any independent rotation between the shaft and 
cutter-disks. By turning the nuts e upon the shafts (7, the 
shearing-edges of the cutters can be set together with greater 
or less force, the cutters being laterally free among them- 
selves. Adjustment at all the cutting angles is effected 
simultaneously by the adjustment of nuts e. 

F indicates clearer bars or fingers, w^hich are arranged 
between the respective cutters D in series corresponding 
therewith. These clearer-bars are arranged to nearly fill 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 137 

the width of the spaces between the disks D. They extend 
from the shaft C to a position beyond the peripheral hne or 
edges of the disks, their outer ends being retained stationary 
by suitable supports, E^ so that any of the severed material 
that becomes wedged in or caught between the parallel 
sides of the adjacent disks will be forced outward from the 
spaces as the disks revolve past the clearer-bars. Thus the 
severed material is freed and discharged from among the 
cutters or prevented from winding around the cylinders. 
The clearers F are made as shown in Fig. 35 (preferably of 
round wire, althougli flat plates may be employed if desired), 
with a loop, /, at one end to fit over the shaft (7, and the 
loop I at the opposite end, through which is passed a support- 
bar, E, that extends across the frame J., and by means of 
which the outer ends of the series of clearers are retained in 
a uniform line, and the respective clearers prevented from 
turning out of place by the strain of the work and the 
revolving of the cutters. 

G indicates the endless travelling apron for feeding the 
material to the cutters. The apron may be mounted on 
guiding-rolls, and be operated in any suitable manner; or, if 
preferred, a stationary table may be used instead of the 
travelling apron. A stationary table is shown at G\ in front 
of the stripping-cutters at U. 

Vindicates a chute for collecting and directing the cut 
material as it falls from the cutter-cylinders. The machines 
may be made with long cutter-cylinders, as shown between 
the frames A A, and with bearings at each end ; or they 
may be made with short projecting cutter-cylinders as at D\ 



138 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

or with both the long and short cyhnders, as shown in the 
illustrations. Also, any desired number of disks or cutters, 
7), may be used to compose the cylinders, and said cutters may 
be formed of any thickness required. Cutters of different 
thicknesses can be run together when desired, and one series 
of cutters can be readily exchanged for another of different 
thickness by simply raising the shafts G from the bearings, 
removing the nuts e, and sliding off those which are on the 
shaft and then sliding on the other set of cutters. When it 
is desired to cut the material into strips or pieces of consider- 
able width, tubular cylindrical blanks may be arranged 
between two thin serrated disks, D, to form a cutter of the 
desired thickness, this being equivalent to making a single 
cutter of equal thickness to the blank and cutters as combined. 

In the machine here shown the invention is embodied in 
a practical form for cutting up old corsets for the purpose of 
separating the steels, eyelets, and whalebones from the cloth 
fibre, the side cylinders at D' being adapted for severing 
the busk-steels and eyelet-strips, and the broad cylinders for 
cutting the body portions transversely across the whale- 
bones. 

In the operation of the machine the material to be cut is 
fed between the cylinders from the apron or table, and the 
revolving cutters sever it into uniform strips corresponding 
in width to the width of the cutting-disks. The teeth, d, of 
the disks are readily forced through the material, and the 
depressions between the teeth receive the hard substances, 
thus preventing the material from escaping or sliding in front 
of the contact edges of the cutters, so that the machine 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 139 

operates with comparative ease and effect, while the cutters, 
by reason of their form and arrangement it is claimed do not 
require to be sharpened, even though cutting hard substances, 
and, if broken or injured, can be readily renewed. 

The cutters of case-hardened wrought-iron can be cheaply 
made, and are very durable, and the machine, it is claimed, 
can be maintained in working condition at slight expense. 
It is also claimed to be rapid and efficient in its operation, 
• and is adapted to severe usage without liability of derange- 
ment. 

Macliine for Separating Metallic Substances from Paper- 
^ StocJi, etc. 

In connection with the machine of the Messrs. Colburn 
last described, we will here mention the invention of Mr. 
Charles F. Taylor, of Springfield, Mass., which has for its 
object the separation of small metallic substances from rags 
and paper-stock. 

Heretofore objectionable matter in rags has been largely 
removed by hand, and in pulp by screens, perforated bottoms, 
etc. These, however, do not remove the small particles of 
iron and other like matter, which is very objectionable. 

In reducing rags to the desired degree of fineness and 
purity for the bleach-boiler, no means has been devised to 
separate small metallic substances from the rags. A large 
percentage of the objectionable matter which it has hereto- 
fore been very difficult to remove is magnetic, or, in other 
words, is of such nature as will be attracted by a magnet. 
It is consequently proposed in the present invention to utilize 



140 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

this attractive property for the purpose of separating such 
substances from the rags. 

It will readily be seen that many mechanical contrivances 
may be devised with which the attractive force of magnets 
may be utilized for this purpose, and that there are various 
stages in the process of paper-manufacture where the magnetic 
force may be applied to accomplish the desired result, and 
that both permanent and electro-magnets may be used. 

In treating rags containing a large proportion of metallic 
substance such as are designed to be cut by the Coburn rag- 
cutting machine special applications of the magnetic force 
would have to be made; but the best result is ordinarily 
attained by the application of the magnetic force in two 
stages, the first after the rags have been reduced to the size 
to which they are usually cut before being placed in the 
bleach-boiler, and the second after the material has been 
reduced to pulp. 

Probably the best method of applying and utilizing this 
force in the first instance is to provide two sets of revolving 
magnets, a, as shown in Figs. 36 and 37, and to feed the 
cut rags between these magnet-rolls, they being so adjusted 
that all the material which passes is caused to come in con- 
tact with or in close proximity to the magnets, when, if 
there be any particles in the stock, either separated from or 
attached to the rags of the nature above described, they will 
be attached to the magnets, and be carried by the revolving 
of the magnets away from the flow of clear material, and 
may be wiped from the magnets with any convenient appli- 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 



141 



anc8. A fixed or stationary magnet may, however, be used 
at this stage, and a good result attained. 

Figs. 36 and 37 are side views of an arrangement for the 
appHcation of the magnets for use in cut rags, and Figs. 38 
and 39 are views illustrating the application to pulp. 

Fig. 36 illustrates a device consisting of a hopper, 5, having 
a feed-wheel, c, arranged to feed the stock to the magnets a. 
The feed-wheel c is provided with pins which catch and feed 
the rags through the chute. 

Fig. 37 illustrates a means of feeding the rags to the 
magnets upon an endless apron. 



^2. 36. 



FisT. 3 7. 




Figs. 38 and 39 illustrate the method of application in 
separating the objectionable matter which may have passed 
the first appliance from the stock after it has assumed the 
form of pulp. It is preferable to apply the magnets to the 
pulp while it is passing through the sand catcher. The flow 
is here slow and shallow, and by immersing the magnets at 



142 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

this point all or a large proportion of the magnetic matter is 
caught. There is in much pulp a scaly matter, which appa- 
rently comes from the iron portion of the machinery with 
which the pulp comes in contact. The pulp is of such con- 
sistency that these small particles are held, and do not fall 
to the bottom ; neither can they be caught in screens. The 
best method of application is probably to attach a series of 
magnets to an arbor, and revolve them slowly in the sand- 
box in a direction against the flow of the pulp. The 
magnets, being set near together, will thus aid in separating 
the globules of pulp which gather and hold the objection- 
able matter, aiding thus mechanically in freeing the pulp 
of the particles of foreign matter. The magnets should be 
cleaned once in about twenty-four hours. This may be done 
with any convenient contrivance. A brush properly adjusted 
to accomplish the desired result can be used ; the revolving 
magnets may, however, be used without a mechanical means 
to clean them. 

Other Rag-cutting MacJiines. 

There are rag-cutting machines in the market other than 
those which we have described, but, as they are all repre- 
sented in the catalogues of the leading manufacturers of 
paper-making machinery, we shall not enumerate and 
describe them in this volume owing to lack of space. The 
reader is, therefore, referred to the firms of Messrs. Cyrus 
Currier & Sons, Newark, N. J. ; Holyoke Machine Co., 
Holyoke, Mass. ; the South Boston Iron Works, Boston, 
Mass. ; Messrs. La Tourrette & Co., Middleton, O. ; Messrs. 



CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 143 

Stiles & Co., Riegelsville, Warren Co., N. J. ; The Black «& 
Clauson Co., Hamilton, O., etc., from whom all desired 
information can be obtained. 

Sizes of the Cut Rags. 

In order to avoid the great waste which results from the 
unravelling of the rags when cut on the bias, it is desirable 
to make the cut in the direction of either the warp or woof. 
The dimensions of the cut rags vary from about two to five 
inches square ; coarse and tough varieties being cut smaller 
than those which are soft or well worn. 

List of Patents for Rag-cutters and Dusters, issued hy the Government 
of the United States of America, from 1790^ to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




Jan. 13, 1829. 


W. Debit. 




July 27, 1831. 


G. Carriel. 


93 


Nov. 28, 1836. 


E. Burt and G. Carriel. 


615 


Feb. 22, 1838. 


R. Carter. 


920 


yept. 14, 1838. 


E. Burt. 


927 


Sept. 19, 1838. 


H. Chtrk and W. Albertson, 


1,782 


Sept. 10, 1840. 


E. Smith. 


11,882 


Oct. 31, 1854. 


A. S. Woodward and B. F. Bartlett. 


23,643 


April 12, 1859. 


W. C. Geer. 


27,167 


Feb. 14, 1860. 


J. Storm. 


31,154 


Jan. 22, 1861. 


R. Daniels. 


38,735 


June 2, 1863. 


J. Faw. 


73,695 


Jan. 28, 1868. 


J. Collins, Jr., and N. R. Nickson. 


74,506 


Feb. 18, 1868. 


J. Collins, Jr. 


75,341 


March 10, 1868. 


A. Allen. 


80,531 


Aug. 4, 1868. 


A. T. Bennett and W. 0. Anderson. 


85,512 
85,513 


Jan. 5, 1869. 
Jan. 5, 1869. 


1 A. F. Crosby. 


98,692 


Jan. 11, 1870. 


J. W. Barbour. 


100,718 


March 15, 1870. 


L. Brainard. 




» See 


page 50. 



144 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

No. Date. Inventor. 

102,H54 May 10, 1870. W.E.Newton. 

133,787 Dec. 10, 1872. M.Marshall. 

145,475 Dec. 16, 1873. E. D. Aldrich. 

214.185 April 8, 1879. G. W. Patten and J. H. Knowles. 
214,462 April 15, 1879. J. T. Slack. 

217,100 July 1, 1879. T. W. Harding. 

234,640 Nov. 16, 1880. W. A. Wright. 

268.075 Nov. 28, 1882. T. W. Harding. 
272,856 Feb. 27, 1883. L. and J. C. Coburn. 

280.076 June 26, 1883. F. L. Palmer. 
286,373 Oct. 9, 1883. L. Baumann. 
286, .503 Oct. 9, 1883. ] 

287,482 Oct. 30, 1883. Y^- F. Taylor. 

292,873 Feb. 5, 1884. J 

298,108 May 6, 1884. R. O. and AV. Moorhouse. 

299,366 May 27, 1884. T. Ferry. 

311.186 I j^j^_ 27, 1885. J. B. Hart and E. H. Walker. 

311.187 i 



Straw Cutters. 

The cutters used for cutting straw into the required short 
lengths are similar to ordinary rag cutters ; the straw being 
spread on a table and fed to fluted feed-rolls, which push it 
forward over a steel bed-knife where it is cut by revolving 
knives. 

It is usually desirable to pass the straw through a cleaner ; 
but if this is not done it should fall from the cutting-box on 
a slanting rack of wire through the openings of which the 
chaff and grain will pass. 

The straw after being cut is next thoroughly wetted and 
afterward thrown into a bin, where it sweats and soaks and 
gradually grows more pliable while waiting to be thrown 
into the boiler. 



treating wood before grinding. 145 

Cutting Wood for Chemical Fibre. 

The wood is generally received at the mill as cord wood ; 
it is freed from bark and the worst of the knots are cut out. 
It is cut into chips by a machine consisting of a heavy 
cast-iron disk, measuring about seven feet in diameter, keyed 
on a shaft at one end of which is a driving pulley, and all 
mounted in a suitable frame. Three knives are fastened to 
the face of the disk, in a slightly inclined position, so that 
the edges of the knives project about three-quarters of an 
inch from the face. The wood is fed to the knives through 
a cast-iron chute armnged in a slanting position, facing the 
disk in a line with the knives. The wood on coming in 
contact with the knives is cut into chips measuring from one- 
half to three-quarters of inch in length. From the cutting 
machine the chips fall into a pit from which they are conveyed 
to the digester by means of an ordinary bucket elevator or 
other suitable plan. 

If the knives are kept true and sharp the wood will 
generally feed regularly and smoothly to the cutter, thus 
avoiding the necessity of employing either physical or 
mechanical force for holding the wood to the disk. 

Treating Wood Before Grinding. 

Various methods of treating wood previous to submitting 
it to the action of the grinders have been proposed and used. 

By one process the pieces of wood after being cut into 
suitable lengths for grinding are treated by first steaming 

10 



146 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

them, then removmg the acids generated hi the steaming 
operation, next treating the steamed wood with alkali, and, 
finally, grinding or reducing the pieces to pulp. Steaming 
has been resorted to for the purpose of removing the bark 
from wooden blocks preparatory to grinding the solid parts, 
and wood has also been treated with water sprinkled on 
it from above, and steam simultaneously applied from 
beneath it, in order to soften and cleanse it preparatory to 
grinding. 

But the process which we shall now describe, which is 
that of Mr. George F. Cushman, of Barnet, Vermont, is 
intended to facilitate the disintegration of the fibres when 
submitted to the action of the revolving stones by a prelimi- 
nary cooking of the block of wood in a bath of boiling hot 
water with lime, soda-ash, or equivalent chemical agent in 
solution, to soften the block, toughen the fibres, and lessen 
their lateral adhesion. By this process the block is reduced 
to pulp with much less power than is required to grind a 
block not so treated, and the pulp produced is claimed to be 
softer, stronger, and more desirable, since the fibres are not 
broken up or comminuted, but are more nearly in their 
natural condition, with their lateral beards or filaments pre- 
served, so that when reunited in the paper sheet special 
toughness and tenacity are attained. 

In carrying out this method, immerse the solid wooden 
blocks in a strong solution of lime, soda-ash, chloride of 
lime, or equivalent chemical agent, kept boiling hot by the 
introduction of steam or otherwise, and adapted to soften 
the blocks in readiness for grinding, and retain the blocks 



TREATING WOOD BEFORE GRINDING. 147 

under treatment from ten to twenty-four hours, or until the 
liquid has had time to penetrate all parts of the block, and 
the lateral adhesion of the fibres is so weakened that they 
will readily separate by the attrition of the grinding-stone 
without being broken short or reduced to a mere powder ; 
and as the chemical action is most rapid in the direction of 
the length of the fibres, it is desirable to cut the block much 
shorter than is usual, or to form transverse saw-scarfs at 
intervals between its ends, in order that the solution may 
readily penetrate from each end to the centre, so as to loosen 
and toughen the fibres throughout the block. The pressure 
of steam above the liquid in the tank tends to force the solu- 
tion into all the pores of the immersed blocks. Then 
remove the blocks from the tank and subject them to the 
action of the grinders in the usual way, keeping a constant 
stream of water upon the stone ; and the disintegration will 
be found to be effected with great rapidity, owing to the 
preliminary treatment received by the blocks, and also that 
no washing is required beyond what results from wetting- 
down the stone. The pulp produced is claimed to be of 
superior quality, and as the blocks have absorbed only so 
much of the chemicals as is beneficial to the fibre, it is in 
condition for the successive steps in the production of vari- 
ous grades of paper of special strength, and for numerous 
other purposes in the arts. If preferred, however, this fibre 
may be mixed with hard stock made of other material, such 
mixture producing paper or board of exceptional toughness. 



148 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 

Voelfer^s Machine for Cutting or Grinding Wood, and 
Reducing it to Pulp. 

The art of reducing wood to pulp by subjecting the same 
to the action of a revolving stone is not a new one, machinery 
for grinding wood while a current of water was applied to 
the stone having been patented in France by Christian 
Voelter as early as 1847 (see lOth volume, 2d series, Brevets 
d'lnvention), and in England by A. A. Brooman, of London, 
in 1853. (See Repertory of Patented Inventions for May, 
1854, page 410.) 

A large number of inventions for cutting or grinding wood 
into pulp have been patented in the United States and in 
Europe ; but the enormous development of the paper-making 
industry and the cheapening of paper in America during the 
last fifteen years are largely due to the general introduction 
of the machine for disintegrating blocks of wood and assort- 
ing the fibres so obtained into classes according to their 
different degrees of fineness, invented by Mr. Henry Voelter, 
of Heidenheim, Wiirtenburg, Germany, and for which 
invention he received letters patent on August 10, 1858, 
from the United States. 

In all the processes known or used prior to Yoelter's 
invention the wood had been acted upon by the stone in one 
of two ways, viz., either by causing the surface of the stone 
to act upon the ends of the fibres, the surface of the stone 
moving substantially in a plane perpendicular to the fibres 
of the wood ; or, secondly, by acting upon the fibres in such 
a direction that they were severed diagonally, the surface of 
the stone moving diagonally across the fibres. The first 



voelter's wood-pulp machine. 149 

plan, in fact, made powder of the wood. The pulp had no 
practical length, and on trial proved worthless, or nearly so. 
The second plan was carried out by the use of a stone 
revolving like an ordinary grindstone, the wood being ap- 
plied upon the cylindrical surface thereof, with the fibres 
perpendicular, or nearly so, to planes passing through the 
axis of the stone and the point or locality where the grinding 
was performed ; and this plan also failed, because the fibres 
were cut off in lines diagonal to their own length, and were 
consequently too short to make good pulp. There were 
other difiiculties attending the process not necessary here to 
mention. Such was the state of the art prior to Voelter's 
invention ; and his improvement in the art consists in grind- 
ing or rather tearing out the fibres from the bundle of fibres 
which makes up a piece of wood by acting upon them by a 
grinding-surface which moves substantially across the fibres 
and in the same plane with them. In carrying out his 
improvement upon the art Voelter splits a log of wood and 
applies the flat side upon the stone, and then so revolves the 
stone as to cause points upon its surface to pass the fibres in 
lines perpendicular, or nearly so, to the length of the fibre. 
By this mode of procedure it is possible to obtain a sufiiciently 
long fibre and save much power. Voelter's improvement in 
the art consists, further, in regrinding the fibres by causing 
them, after being separated from the block, to pass under other 
blocks of wood, which are being reduced to pulp upon the same 
stone. The fibres torn out at the first operation are thus rolled 
over and crushed again and separated into smaller fibre. 

Voelter's improvements in the machinery are in an arrange- 
ment of pockets with reference to the grinding-surface, so as 



150 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



to hold, the blocks of wood in such position that their fibres 
may be separated from the blocks in the manner described, 
and whereby fibres may be reground ; and in a contrivance 
for feeding up the blocks by a positive feed instead of by 
force derived from weights or springs, as formerly practised; 
and a contrivance for causing the feed to cease automatically. 



Fig. 40. 




On May 22, 1866, Mr. Voelter was granted another patent 
for improvement in his machine for reducing wood to paper- 



VOELTER S WOOD-PULP MACHINE. 



151 



pulp, which patent was reissued April 23,1872. For the 
dates of the various reissues and extension of the Voelter 
patent see the list of patents which follow the close of the 
present section. 

Figs. 40 and 41 show front and rear perspective views of 

Fiir. 41. 




the improved Voelter wood-pulp machine, which is now 
built with either five or seven pockets. 

Figs. 42 to 48 show the machine patented by Mr. Voelter 



152 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



on May 22, 1866. Figs. 42 and 43 are sectional elevations 
of parts of Voelter's apparatus for reducing wood fibres to 



Fig. 42. 







paper-pulp; Figs. 44 and 45, plan views of Figs. 42 and 43; 
Fig. 46, a detached view of part of the apparatus ; Fig. 47 
a sectional elevation of another portion of the apparatus, and 
Fig. 48 a plan view of Fig. 47. 

On a suitable foundation. A, Fig. 42, rests an oblong box, 
J3, and to opposite sides of the latter are secured quadrant- 
shaped frames, C G\ in which turn the shafts D, E, E', and E. 



VOELTER S WOOD-PULP MACHINE. 



153 



To the shaft D is secured a grindstone, D\ and to each of 
the shafts E E' is secured a conical pulley, 2, a belt, 4, pass- 



FiV. 45. 




ing round both pulleys and through the forked ends of a 
guide, 5, which is adjustable laterally on a screw-shaft, 6. 



Fiof. 46. 




On the shaft ^ is a pulley, 7, and on the shaft F turns a 
pulley, 9, a belt, 8, passing round both pulleys, and to the 
shaft F^ adjacent to the pulley 9, is secured a ratchet-wheel, 
a, to the teeth of which is adapted the end of a spring-pawl, 
5, attached to the pulley 9. 

Through an opening in a cross-piece, 10, extending 
between the side frames, passes a screw rod, 11, the rod also 
passing through a worm-wheel, 1 2, which bears against the 
cross-piece, and is operated by a worm, 13, on the shaft F. 



154 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



To the upper side of the worm-wheel 12 are hnng two 
jaws, which bear against opposite sides of the rod 11, and 



Fiff. 47. 




Fio-. 4 




voelter's wood-pulp machine. 155 

have threads cut in their edges, the side threads being 
adapted to the tread on the rod. 

To a cross-head, 15, which slides on guides, 16, attached 
to the side frames, is secured a box, c, containing a rubber 
spring or cushion, d., and against the latter bears a disk, 17, 
on the rod 11, which projects through the cushion and 
through the bottom of the box, a nut on the lower end of 
the rod preventing the withdrawal of the latter. 

To the lower side of the cross-head 15 is secured a wooden 
block, e, the face of which, near the lower edge, is cut away 
as shown in Fig. 42, ^or a purpose described hereafter. 

To the side frames are secured two hollow adjustable 
cross-pieces or boxes, G G\ each of which communicates 
with a water-reservoir, and in the lower edge of each box, 
which is nearly in contact with the face of the stone D', is a 
narrow slit or opening, x. The adjacent sides of the boxes 
G G\ near their lower edges, are parallel, and are such a 
distance apart as to permit the ready introduction between 
them of the block e. 

A rake, i/, extends from the bottom of the box B to one 
side of the grindstone D\ and at the bottom of the box, 
below the opposite side of the stone, is a projection, *', of the 
form shown in Fig. 42. 

On a shelf or partition, 18, at the end of the box B, rests 
a sieve, J^ so fine that fibres which can pass it do not need 
rogrinding, the upper portion of which is inclosed by a casing, 
19, secured to the side frames and to the edge of tlie box. 
Two pipes, /rand /iT', communicate with this end of the box 
B, the former above and the latter below the partition 18. 



156 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

On a frame- work, A\ Fig. 47, rest three tanks, L, X', 
and L^, and in the tank L is hung a basket, P, of wire- 
gauze or other suitable material, in such a manner that it 
receives a shaking motion by means of arms, //, which pro- 
ject from the said basket, bearing on ratchet-wheels, </, 
secured to a shaft, Q, turning in brackets attached to the 
tank. 

In the tank L revolves a cylinder, B, of wire-gauze, which 
communicates at one end with a reservoir, S, Fig. 48, at the 
side of the tank, a pipe, T, leading from the reservoir and 
communicating with the tank L', near the bottom of the 
latter. 

To arms, i i, secured to a revolving shaft, j, turning in 
bearings attached to the tank L, is secured a comb, k, and 
to arms i i, hung to brackets / /, is secured a plate, 7?i, for a 
purpose described hereafter. 

In the upper portion of the tank TJ turns a shaft on which 
is secured a fluted or serrated roller, IT, and above the latter 
is a hopper, V, in guides, on one of the inclined sides of 
which slides a plate, n, the lower edge of the latter being 
parallel to the face of the roller. The tank L' is divided by 
a vertical partition, o, which extends nearly to the bottom 
into two unequal-sized chambers, x x', and in the lower por- 
tion of the former turns a paddle-wheel, W. From the 
upper edge of the tank X' extends an inclined plate or chute, 
2^, and below the latter, in the tank X^, rotates a hollow 
cylinder, R', of wire-gauze, which communicates through an 
opening in one end with a reservoir, S^, Fig. 48, at the side 
of the tank. 



voelter's wood-pulp machine. 157 

In the lower portion of the tank X^, below the chute p, 
revolves a paddle-wheel, W\ and to a shaft, q, which turns 
in suitable bearings secured to the tank, is attached a smaller 
paddle-wheel, r, the upper end of an inclined shute, s, being- 
secured to the edge of the tank adjacent to the paddle- 
wheel r. 

On a platform, M, supported by pillars rests the lower 
stone, N, of a pair of millstones, the upper millstone, 
N', being hung to and rotating with a vertical shaft, 0, in 
the ordinary manner, and into the usual central opening in 
this stone projects the lower end of the chute s. The upper 
stone, N', is surrounded by a casing, t, an opening at one 
side of which communicates with a box or reservoir, S^, 
secured to the platform M. 

On the framework A^, Fig. 43, rest the tanks Y, Y\ and 
Y'', and in the former is a vertical sieve, v, and a partition, 
IV, the latter extending across the upper portion only of the 
tank. On one side of the sieve v revolves a paddle-wheel, 
TF^, and from the opposite side of the tank a chute, 31, pro- 
jects over a cylinder, i?^, of wire-gauze, wliich revolves in 
the tank Y. 

The cylinder i^^ communicates, through an opening in 
one end, with a reservoir, S'\ Fig. 45, a pipe, T^, communi- 
cating with the latter and with the tank Y^, in which turns 
a cylinder, R^, which communicates with a reservoir, jS^, and 
against both this cylinder and the cylinder B^ bear rollers ?/ 
2/, on the ends of which are bands 7i, of leather or other suit- 
able material, a stationary plate, z, being secured at the side 
of each roller. In the tank F^ turns a paddle-wheel, W\ 



158 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The pipe K, Figs. 42 and 48, communicates with a pipe, 
T'. leading from the reservoir S\ and also with the reservoir 
S^", and from the latter extends a pipe, /f^, which communi- 
cates with the tank Y. 

The material flowing through the pipe K' is discharged 
into the basket P, a pump or other suitable apparatus being 
used to elevate the material when the tank L is above the 
box^. 

Opei^ation. — The sections z of wood to be disintegrated 
are placed between the boxes G G' and against the grind- 
stone D'. Water is admitted to each of the boxes and into 
the tank B^ and a rotary motion in the direction of its arrow 
is imparted to each of the shafts D, E, E\ and F. A rotary 
motion in the direction of its arrow is also imparted to each 
of the shafts Q, j, q, and 0, to the paddle-wheels W, W\ 
T^^ and W, to the cylinders U, E, B\ R\ and R\ and to the 
rollers y y. As the worm-wheel 12 is turned the jaws 14 
14, acting as a revolving nut, will cause the rod 11 to be 
moved forward, the block e being brought against the sections 
z and feeding the latter slowly toward the grindstone by 
which they are disintegrated, the fibrous particles thus 
detached being carried into the box B. The undue pressure 
of the wood against the stone is prevented by the elastic 
cushion c?, which also yields slightly to permit the wood to 
accommodate itself to inequalities in the stone, while the 
wedging of the blocks between the boxes G G\ which occurs 
when the boxes approach each other toward the bottom, is 
prevented by making the adjacent sides of the boxes parallel. 
The speed of the forward movement of the rod 1 1 in pro- 



yoelter's wood-pulp machine. 159 

portion to that of the stone is regulated by adjusting the 
belt 4 on the pulleys 2, the spring-pawl Z>, through the 
medium of which motion is conveyed from the pulley 9 to 
the shaft F^ being sufficiently rigid to retain its hold on the 
ratchet-wheel I so long as no unusual resistance is offered to 
the forward movement of the rod 11 and the cross-head. 
When, however, the blocks of wood are not disintegrated 
with sufficient rapidity, or the forward movement of the rod 
1 1 is otherwise interrupted or retarded, the pawl h will yield 
and slip over the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, the rattling noise 
thus produced informing the attendant of the necessity of 
readjusting the belt 4 to diminish the speed of the shaft F. 
As the block e is brought near the face of the stone, that 
portion of the wood beneath the inclined face of the block 
will be cut to a wedge-shape, the thick edge being toward 
the box G'. By this means small particles of wood are pre- 
vented from being wedged into the narrow space between 
the box G' and the stone, to the retardation of the revolution 
of the latter. The finer fibres of the wood are carried by 
the revolution of the stone between the teeth of the rake ZT, 
and are thrown against the sieve /, while such coarser 
particles as would injure the sieve are arrested by the rake. 
The finest filaments pass through the sieve /with the water 
thrown up by the stone, and are conducted through the pipe 
K to the reservoir /S'^, Fig. 48, while larger particles fall in 
front of the projection / and pass with the water which 
fiows through the pipe K' into the basket P^ Fig. 47. 
The finer fibres pass through the meshes of the basket P, 
while the coarser fibres are retained and removed from time 



160 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

to time, such a vibrating motion being imparted to the 
basket by the action of the ratchet-wheels g as will prevent 
the meshes from becoming obstructed. The finest fibres pass 
with the water into the gauze cylinder i?, and out of the 
latter into the reservoir S, and through the pipe T to the 
tank L\ the coarser fibres being carried by the action of the 
cylinder R within range of the rotating comb h, by which 
they are caught and carried upward until the comb strikes 
the plate m. As the comb continues to revolve the plate m 
slides forward and scrapes off the adhering fibres, which fall 
into any suitable receptacle, the tank L being thus cleared 
of the useless fibres which would obstruct the action of the 
cyhnder. After the contents of the reservoir S are intro- 
duced into the tank X', they are thoroughly agitated and 
mixed by the action of the paddle-wheel W^ a mash being 
thus produced, which is directed upward through the 
chamber X', and on to the chute |:), from which it falls on to 
the cylinder R'. The finer filaments, which pass through 
the cylinder R' are conveyed into the reservoir /S", and 
through the pipe T' into the reservoir /S'^ while the mash 
which remains in the tank is mashed and agitated by the 
paddle-wheel W\ and is directed by the paddle-wheel r into 
the chute 5, down which it flows into the opening in the 
upper millstone N'. As the fibres pass between the mill- 
stones they are split and broken into fine filaments, the 
stones being so prepared that the fibres may be cut rather 
than worn. The fibres, after being reduced to a pulpy mass, 
pass from the stones into the casing h and then into the 
reservoir S"^. The pulp flows from the reservoir S"", through 



voelter's wood-pulp machine. 161 

the pipe /iT^ into the tank F, where it is directed by the 
paddle-wheel W^ against the sieve v, the finest fibres passing 
through the latter and upward to the chute 31, from which 
they fall on to the cylinder B^, the fibres which pass 
into this cylinder being conducted to the reservoir S^ and 
through the pipe T^ to the tank F^. The pulp in the tank 
Y' is agitated by the paddle-wheel W^, so that every portion 
may be brought into contact with the cylinder. The gauze 
on the cylinder i^^ is too fine to permit any of the fibres 
to pass through it. The superfluous water, however, flows 
into the cylinder arid into the reservoir S*, from which 
it is removed by a siphon or other suitable apparatus. As 
the cylinders R^ R^ revolve the fibres on the surfaces of the 
same are transferred to the rollers y y^ and after being 
scraped from the latter by the plates z, fall into any suitable 
receptacle, the leather bands h A, at the ends of the rollers, 
maintaining the surfaces of the same from contact with those 
of the cylinders, which are thus preserved from abrasion. 
The coarse fibres, detached by the plate z, as well as those 
remaining in the tanks Y Y, are placed in the hopper F, 
from which they are fed into the tank L' by the fluted roller 
U, the sliding plate n being adjusted to regulate the passage 
of the fibres in such quantities as may be desired. These 
fibres are discharged from the tank L' into the tank L^, and 
after passing between the millstones are sorted in the tanks 
Y, Y\ and F^, as before. If fibres are required which are 
not so finely divided as those which pass into the tank F^, 
they may be removed at any stage of the process, and it will 

be apparent that any desired number of tanks and cylinders 
11 



162 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

may be employed in order to obtain a greater assortment of 
■fibres. 

Instead of arranging the cylinders as described they may 
be placed with their shafts inclined, and the material may be 
introduced into the interiors of the cylinders, the finer 
particles passing through the latter into the tanks, while the 
coarser fibres are rolled toward the lower end and discharge 
into any suitable receptacle. 

A perforated pipe communicating with a water-reservoir 
may be arranged adjacent to each of the cylinders and sieves 
so as to throw a constant stream of water on to them, and 
thus maintain the meshes unobstructed. 

In the process of reducing wood to fibre by a grinding 
operation, it always happens that slivers, chips, or small 
pieces of wood too large either to be used as pulp or to be 
reground (because they would choke the stones or lift the 
upper one when stones arranged as shown in the drawing are 
employed), are detached accidentally from the wooden blocks. 
These useless pieces of wood are separated from the useful 
fibres, first, at the rake ; second, at the shaking-basket ; 
and, third, at the first cylinder R ; and it is better thus to 
get rid of them at three operations than to remove them all 
at once ; and this separation of the useless from the useful 
products of the first grinding, by means of sieves — for the 
rake, the basket, and the first cylinder are all in fact sieves 
— and a current of water, bearing both fibres and chips, is 
the separating process. The fibres which result from the 
action of the first stone upon the blocks are assorted at the 



voelter's wood-pulp machine. 163 

sieve J at the cylinder jB\ in the preferred form of apparatus, 
and none of the fibres which pass these sieves are regroiind. 
This separation of coarser from finer fibres by sieves and a 
current of water is the assorting stage of the process. All 
the fibres might pass directly from the first to the second 
stone without being assorted, but in that case the finer fibres 
would probably be made too fine, and rendered useless ; and, 
at any rate, the regrinding stones would be uselessly loaded 
with matter which did not need to be acted upon by them. 

When a sieve of any kind is employed to assort fibre, the 
greater part of the water passes through the sieve, and the 
fibre which does not pass the sieve is left in a pasty state. 
This is the preferable state for regrinding, and the inventor 
therefore uses a paddle-wheel to keep the mass in motion 
to prevent its settling, and another wheel to produce a current 
to carry the mass to the chute. 

The regrinding or reducing process is that which is effected 
by the action of the stones upon the mass of fibre introduced 
between them. The assorting after the regrinding is caused 
by the action of a fibre-bearing current and the sieves Fand 
R'^. The fibres which do not pass Fmay be ground a third 
time. So also may those which do not pass i^^, and the 
pulp is deprived of the greater portion of its water, so as to 
fit it for transportation, by means of the cylinders R^ R^ and 
the rollers which gather the fibres from their surface. The 
cylinder R - is, therefore, always a part of the assorting appa- 
ratus used after regrinding, and when the fibres gathered 
from its surface are not ground the third time it is also, in 



164 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

connection with the rollers, a contrivance for partially drying 
the pulp. 

In place of the paddle-wheel r, cords may be wound 
spirally around the cylinder i^\ so that as the latter revolves 
the material is caused to flow toward one side of the tank, 
and, consequently, into the chute. 

Nature, etc., of the Pulp produced hy VoeIter''s Method. 

Voelter's method does not produce a real pulp, but rather 
a semi-flour of wood, it adds nothing to the strength of the 
paper, and is an injury in the sizing. 

It is said with reason that the Voelter process produces 
little with a large amount of power; it requires, in fact, a 
considerable fall of water to yield 55 or 60 horse-power net 
to manufacture 1200 pounds of pulp in 24 hours. Further- 
more, the Voelter machines can be used with profit only in 
proximity to large supplies of wood. Another unfavorable 
condition is the necessity of working the wood while green ; 
the sap which remains in the pulp causes it to easily ferment, 
to heat while piled up, and to take a reddish color. 

Fig. 49 shows the arrangement of a plant for producing 
pulp by the Voelter process. The following letters refer to 
the various mechanical contrivances employed. T, elevator 
for hoisting the wood to the floor of the mill on which the 
Voelter machine is located. R, circular saw to cut the wood 
into blocks. B, Voelter's machine composed of a millstone 
mounted upon an horizontal shaft and against which the 
blocks are pressed by mechanical pushers, causing them to 
advance constantly and regularly as the blocks are ground off". 



YOELTER S WOOD-PULP PLANT. 
Fior. 49. 



165 




166 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



A continuous stream of water falls upon the circumference 
of the millstone. E^ first sieve removing the wood splinters 
and separating the fine pulp from the coarser, which must 
pass to the refining-machine. C, refiner, composed of two 
horizontal millstones like those of a grain-mill. G^ crane 
for lifting and displacing the millstones for dressing. 0, 
water-reservoir. P, pump. S^ sorter dividing the pulp 
according to its grade of fineness. Z, pulp press. 



List of Patents for Wood Grinders, issued hy the Government of the 
United States of America from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


5,251 


Aug. 21, 1847. 


Roberts and Hambly. 


12,978 


May 29, 1855 


M. D. Whipple. 


21,161 


Aug. 10, 1858.' 


•\ 


Reissue 






3,361 


April 6, 1869. 


I 


Extended for 7 


yrs. Aug. 29, 1870. 


)■ H. Voelter. 


Reissue 






4,418 


June 6, 1871. 




Extended for 7 


yrs. Aug. 29, 1877. 


J 


37,951 


March 24, 1863. 


P. A. Chadburne. 


40,217 


Oct 6, 1863. 


G. E. Sellers. 


55,031 


May 22, 1866. 


1 


Reissue 




I H. Voelter. 


4,881 


April 23, 1872. 


) 


59,042 


Oct. 23, 1866. 


H. and F. Marks. 


77,829 


May 12, 1868. 


W. Miller. 


84,640 


Dec. 1, 1868. 


H. Marks. 


87,139 


Feb. 23, 1869. 


F. Burghardt. 


89,220) 
89,221 i 


April 20, 1869. 


J. H. Hawes. 


• 89,255 


April 20, 1869. 


J. Stutt. 


97,041 


Nov. 23, 1869. 


F. Burghardt. 


98,210 


Dec. 21, 1869. 


G. Vining. 


99,071 


Jan. 25, 1870. 


H. Dodge. 


101,785 


April 12, 1870. 


S. C. Taft. 



' Antedated to Aug 29, 1856, so as to correspond with the date of the earliest 
foreign patent. 



PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 



167 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


102,239 


April 26, 1870. 


A. Fickett. 


103,968 


June 7, 1870. 


Bliss and Rees. 


105,622 


July 26, 1870. 


G. Ames. 


106,710 


Aug. 23, 1870. 


] 


Reissues ] 






8.256 1 

8.257 (■ 


May 28, 1878. 


- H. B. Meech. 
1 


8,258 J 




J 


111,415 


Jan. 31, 1871. 


C. and C. Wolir, Jr. 


111,419 


Jan. 31, 1871. 


Waissing and Specker. 


112,733 1 
112,734) 


March 14, 1871. 


S. A. Perkins. 


113,297 


April 4, 1871. 


W. M. Howland. 


113,488 
115,274 


April 11, 1871. 
May 30, 1871. 


i J. Bridge. 


117,122 


July 18, 1871. 


1 


Reissue 




■ I J. Taylor. 


8,845 


Aug. 12, 1879. 


J 


117,683 


Aug. 1, 1871. 


W. Riddell. 


119,107 


Sept. 19, 1871. 


B. F. Barker. 


119,601 


Oct. 3, 1871. 


J. K. Griffin. 


122,353 


, Jan. 2, 1872. 


J. Bridge. 


122,581 


June 9, 1872. 


H. Dodge. 


126,041 


April 23, 1872. 


J. S. Elliott and J. F. Wood, 


127,337 


May 28, 1872. 


A. K. Gilraore. 


128,788 


July 9, 1872. 


Burghardt and Burghardt. 


130,803 


Aug. 27, 1872. 


H. W. Higley. 


130,944 


Oct. 8, 1872. 


C. De Negri. 


133,243 


Nov. 19, 1872. 


] 


Reissue 




y J. G. Moore. 


5,936 


June 30, 1874. 


I 


141,206 


July 29, 1873. 


J. F. Daniels. 


141,976 


Aug. 19, 1873. 


S. B. Zimmer. 


144,313 


Nov. 4, 1873. 


J. Bridge. 


144,354 


Nov. 4, 1873. 


M. S. and M. E. Otis. 


148,452 


March 10, 1874. 


] 


Reissue 




> A. Harmes and A. Wagenfue 


5,936 


June 80, 1874. 


J 


150,209 


April 28, 1874. 


C. W. Weld. 


150,932 


May 19, 1874. 


B. F. Barker. 


153,190 


July 21, 1874. 


] 


Reissue 




> F. A. Cushman. 


8,198 


April 23, 1878. 


J 


155,074 


Sept. 15, 1874. 


L, M. Egery. 



168 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


166,355 


Oct. 27, 1874. 


] 


Reissue 




y F. A. Cushman. 


8,197 


April 23, 1878. 


J 


160,996 


March 23, 1875. 


B. F. Barker. 


163,926 


June 1, 1875. 


J. 0. Gregg. 


163,958 


June 1, 1875. 


A. M. Zimmer. 


165,706 


June 20, 1875. 


J. M. Burghardt. 


166,835 


Aug. 17, 1875. 


0. Abell. 


182,891 


Oct. 3, 1876. 


J. Chase. 


183,155 


Oct. 10, 1876. 


J. 0. Gregg. 


187,292 


Feb. 13, 1877. 


G. H. Mallory. 


191,899 


June 12, 1877. 


] 


Keissue 




I J. Taylor and J. T. Outterson. 


8,877 


Sept. 2, 1879. 


J 


194,591 


Aug. 28, 1877. 


A. Fickett. 


195,478 


Sept. 25, 1877. 


J. W. Bowers and D. A. Curtis 


196,515 


Aug. 23, 1877. 


M. R. Fletcher. 


196,944 


Nov. 6, 1877. 


E. N. Speer. 


198,236 


Dec. 18, 1877. 


J. H. Burghardt. 


198,845 


Jan. 1, 1878. 


W. H. Haskins. 


200,540 


Feb. 19, 1878. 


W. W. D. JefTers. 


201,083 


March 12, 1878. 


S. M. Allen. 


201,152 


March 12, 1878. 


N. Bly. 


201,486 ■ 


March 19, 1878. 


W. J. Baxendale and D. Barry, 


201,501 


March 19, 1878. 


F. A. Cushman. 


201,550 


March 19, 1878. 


J. G. Moore. 


202,097 


April 9, 1878. 


W. A. Doane. 


202,185 


April 9, 1878. 


] 


Reissue 




y R. D. Mossman. 


8,698 


May 6, 1879. 


] 


202,698 


April 23, 1878. 


J. W. Brightman. 


203,437 


May 7, 1878. 


A. H. Fisher. 


203,928 


May 21, 1878. 


J. C. Mclntyre. 


204,077 


May 21, 1878. 


W. R. Patrick. 


205,347 


June 25, 1878. 


B. F. Brown. 


206,971 


Aug. 13, 1878. 


1 


207,553 
Reissue 


Aug. 27, 1878. 


[- P. and G. C. Rose. 

1 


9,110 


March 9, 1880. 


1 
J 


207,568 


Aug. 27, 1878. 


J. Taylor. 


208,890 


Oct. 15, 1878. 


W. N. Cornell and C. Tollner. 


209,197 


Oct. 22, 1878. 


W. D. and N. H. Shaw. 


211,138 


Jan. 7, 1879. 


W. N. Cornell. 


212,232 


Feb. 11, 1879. 


E. Johnson. 



PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 



169 



No. 
212,782 



217 
218, 
218. 
219. 
219, 
220. 
220. 
221, 
221 
221 
223, 
223, 
224, 
224, 
225, 
225, 
226, 
228, 
228, 
228, 
229, 
229, 
229, 
229, 
230, 
231 
231 
232, 
232, 
233, 
233, 
233, 
233, 
2bo, 
234, 
235, 
236, 
236, 
237, 
239, 
239, 
239, 
240, 
241 



509 

912 

958 

034 

170 

808 

970 

404 

992 

993 

304 

670 

002 

623 

292 

988 

013 

041 

477 

899 

073 

513 

588 

879 

471 

720 

761 

431 

480 

014 

070 

071 

105 

611 

893 

721 

794 

856 

839 

040' 

041 . 

807 

027 

277 



Date. 
March 14, 1879. 
July 15, 1879. 
Aug. 26, 1879. 
Aug. 26, 1879. 
Aug. 26, 1879. 
Sept. 2, 1879. 
Oct. 21, 1879. 
Oct. 28, 1879. 
Nov. 11, 1879. 
Nov. 25, 1879. 
Nov. 25, 1879. 
Jan. 6, 1880. 
Jan. 20, 1880. 
Feb. 3, 1880. 
Feb. 17, 1880. 
March 9, 1880. 
March 30, 1880. 
March 30, 1880, 
May 25, 1880. 
June 8, 1880. 
June 15, 1880. 
June 22, 1880. 
July 6, 1880. 
July 6, 1880. 
July 13, 1880. 
July 27, 1880. 
May 27, 1880. 
Aug. 31, 1880. 
Sept. 21, 1880. 
Sept. 21, 1880. 
Oct. 5, 1880. 
Oct. 12, 1880. 
Oct. 12, 1880. 
Oct. 12, 1880. 
Oct. 26, 1880. 
Nov. 30, 1880. 
Nov. 26, 1880. 
Jan. 18, 1881. 
Jan. 18, 1881. 
Feb. 15, 1881. 

March 22, 1881. 

April 5, 1881. 
April 19, 1881. 
May 10, 1881. 



Inventor. 
S. M. Allen. 
N. H. Rurnhans. 
S. M. Allen. 
J. C. Forbes. 
A. L. Sturdevant. 
J. R. Moffitt. 
W. N. Cornell. 

• H. A. Frambach. 



S. M. Allen. 

W. E. FarrelL 
W. A. Doane. 
S. M. Allen. 
J. W. Martin. 
G. I). King. 
S. M. Allen. 
N. Cowan. 
A. W. Priest. 
P. Holmes. 

S. M. Allen, 

C. W. Clark. y 

H. A. Frambach. 

G. P. Enos. 

T. F. Hoxie. 

C. W. Clark. 

S. M. Allen. 

A. Fickett. 

J. C. Potter. 

J. Chase, 

R. B. Lane. 

H. A. Frambach. 

S. H. Scott, and Pontee and Wyman. 

S. M. Allen. 

G. F. Evans. 

J. M. Stewart. 

M. V. Eichelberger. 

H. A. Frambach. 

R. B. Lane. 
A. Kreider. 
E. M. Ball. 



170 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


241,311 


May 10, 1881. 


A. Dean. 


242,138 


May 31, 1881. 


G. D. King. 


242,308 


May 31, 1881. 


T. Hanvey. 


243,616 


June 28, 1881. 


G. H. Pond. 


243,965 


July 5, 1881. 


B. F. Perkins. 


244,416 


July 19, 1881. 


S. M. Allen. 


246,516 


Aug. 30, 1881. 


N. Kaiser. 


247,072 


Sept. 13, 1881. 


R. B. Lane. 


252,983 


Jan. 31, 1882. 


G. AVerner. 


253,654 1 
253,655) 


Feb. 14, 1882. 


S. M. Allen. 


253,814 


Feb. 14, 1882. 


D. R. Burns. 


254,327 


Feb. 28, 1882. 


G. L. Jaeger. 


257,436 


May 2, 1882. 


R. Cartmell. 


259,974 


June 20, 1882. 


D. R. Burns. 


259,992 


June 27, 1882. 


S. M. Allen. 


261,536 


July 25, 1882. 


A. Crosby. 


263,119 


Aug. 22, 1882. 


W. N. Cornell. 


263,250 


Aug. 22, 1882. 


H. P. Litus. 


264,167 


Sept. 12, 1882. 


W. Jones. 


267,715 


Nov. 21, 1882. 


G. H. Pond. 


269,291 


Dec. 19, 1882. 


G. L. Huxtable. 


271,409 


Jan. 30, 1883. 


) 


Reissue 




I H. N. Brokaw. 


10,429 


Dec. 26, 1883. 


) 


277,060 


May 8, 1883. 


J. Prickett. 


284,433 


Sept. 4, 1883. 


W. Jones. 


286,902 


Oct. 16, 1883. 


Cartmell and Ball. 


287,980 


Nov. 6, 1883. 


H Thompson. 


289,187 


Nov. 27, 1883. 


F. Voith. 


291,777 


Jan. 8, 1884. 


F. G. Ritchie. 


291,848 


Jan. 8, 1884. 


P. H. Holmes. 


293,235 


Feb. 12, 1884. 


G. F. Evans. 


296,780 


April 15, 1884. 


G. H. Pond. 


298,851 


May 20, 1884. 


Hayden and Sleeper 


298,875 


May 20, 1884. 


E. F. Millard. 


304,182 


Aug. 26, 1884. 


F. A. Cushman. 


305.062 ] 

305.063 1 


Sept. 16, 1884. 


E. P. Ely. 


306,979 


Oct. 2], 1884. 


S. S. Webber. 


309,532 


Dec. 23, 1884. 


1 E. P. Ely. 


310,659 


Jan. 13, 1885. 


311,212 


Jan. 27, 1885. 


A. B. Tower. 


320,574 


June 23, 1885. 


E. F. Millard. 



CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 



171 



Corn-Husk Cutter. 

The machine for cutting or slicing corn-husks shown in 
Figs. 50, 51, and 52 is the invention of Mr. Wm. A. Wright, 
of Centreton, N. J. 

Fig. 50. 




Fin. 51. 




Fig. 50 is a top or plan view of the apparatus. Fig. 51 
a central vertical section thereof in H 
52 is a front view of a portion thereof 



is a central vertical section thereof in Hne x x. Fig. 50. Fig. 



172 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



A represents a frame, which is provided with an apron or 
table, B, and on which is mounted a drum or roller, C, from 



Fis. 52. 




the periphery whereof project cutters, Z>, which are separated 
one from another, or made adjustable relatively to the 
required width of the strips or shreds into which the husks 
are to be cut. 

On the inner end of the table B, and beneath the drum 
(7, is a curved bed, E, the curvature being coincident with 
the path of the knives or cutters D. 

To the frame A is connected a swinging frame, F, on 
whose upper end is mounted a rotary clearer, G, consisting 
of bristles or fingers fitted to a journaled head or roller, 
which receives motion from a belt passing around a pulley, 
a, on the head or roller and a pulley, h, on the shaft c, which 
latter constitutes the axis of the frame F, and carries a 
pulley, a\ to which power is communicated by means of a 
pulley, h', on the shaft of the cutter-drum C, or other gear- 
ing, it being noticed that the clearer G and said drum C 
rotate in the same direction. 

H represents a lever Avith downwardly-projecting teeth, 
pivoted to a slide J, whose sides are grooved or formed with 



' CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 173 

guides to fit the sides of the apron or table B^ so that while 
the slide is permitted to be moved to and from the cutters 
D it is prevented from vertical disengagement. 

The operation is as follows: The lever jETis raised and a 
husk, with the stalk end toward the operator, placed on the 
table B and held by the lever, is pushed to the cutters D by 
advancing the slide-clamp H /, power having been properly 
applied to the drum or roller C and the rotary clearer G. 
The cutters slice the husk into shreds or strips the length of 
the husk, the shreds or strips passing between the drum C 
and bed E as the husk is advanced. The clearer G forces 
the shreds or strips down from the cutters D, and also pre- 
vents them from winding on the drum. It will be noticed 
that the outer ends of the cutters describe a greater circle 
than the drum. Consequently when the cutters reach the 
clearer the latter is forced away by the former and its frame 
F caused to swing on the axial shaft c, so as to permit the 
cutters to pass the clearer, without, however, avoiding the 
stripping action thereof. As soon as the cutters clear the 
brushes or fingers of the clearer the frame G returns to its 
normal position and causes the brushes or fingers to sweep 
the circumference of the drum G unoccupied by the cutters 
D. When the length of the husk, excepting the stalk or 
stub, is entirely cut the slide J is drawn back, the lever H 
raised, and the husk removed, after which a fresh husk is 
applied and the operations of slicing, etc., are repeated. 

The bed E sustains the husk during the cutting thereof, 
and its lower end being open permits the escape of loose 



174 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

cutting, dirt, etc., the rotary clearer G also serving as a fan 
to assist said escape. The stalk or stub of the husk is severed 
preferably after the cutting operations. 

Although only one row of cutters is shown, the number 
of them may be increased as desired. 



DUSTING RAGS. 175 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DUSTING RAGS — WET DUSTING WASTE PAPER DUSTER AND 

WASHER. 

Dusting Rags. 

The next operation to which the rags or other paper stock 
are subjected is that of "dusting," and numerous mechanical 
contrivances for removing the dust, sand, and other foreign 
substances mechanically mixed with rags and paper stock 
have been invented in the United States and are technically 
known to the trade as "pin dusters," "railroad dusters," 
" fan dusters," etc. 

The operation of dusting is commonly performed by 
passing the cut rags, etc., through a cylinder and sometimes 
through a conical drum to which a rotary movement is 
imparted by suitable gearing. The periphery of these 
dusters is formed of coarse wire-cloth having about nine 
meshes to the square inch. These drums are sometimes 
placed on an incline and at other times on a level, their dis- 
position in this respect depending upon the arrangement of 
the mechanism for agitating and carrying the rags through 
the drum. 

The rags enter at one end of the drum and issue from the 
other ; the double motion of rotation and transmission causes 



176 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the adhering impurities to separate from the rags, etc., and 
sift through the wire covering of the drum. 

When the paper stock is coarse and very dirty and con- 
tains much straw or hemp, such as pack cloths, old ropes, 
etc., a " devil" is used for dusting the material. The action 
of the "devil" is much more severe than that of the ordinary 
duster, and by it the fibres are more thoroughly loosened up 
and put in condition for the boiling. 

Some dusters which we have seen consist of a revolving 
drum with loose or swinging arms against which the rags 
are fed, and the force with which the rags are struck by 
these swinging arms whips them around under the drum upon 
a coarse wire apron through which the dust escapes. The 
dusted rags issue from the opposite side of the cylinder from 
that into which they were fed, and if not sufficiently dusted 
they are caused to pass through a hollow revolving cylinder, 
also covered with coarse wire cloth, and placed either on a 
line with the thresher or turned at any desired angle from 
it. A wooden or metal partition is placed directly against 
the threshing-drum, against which and the sides of the 
cylinder the rags are thrown with great force which assists 
in beating the dust out of them. 

At the upper portion of the machine at a convenient 
point an opening is left for the purpose of ventilation and 
carrying off the light dust, a strong current of air being 
created by the rapid revolutions of the drum. 

In England, Belgium, and other parts of the Continent as 
well as in the United States, the writer has seen rags dusted 
by a combination of the devil and duster; the devil being com- 



DUSTING RAGS. 177 

posed of two conical cylinders, the interiors of which contain 
projecting steel spikes. In the interior of these cylinders 
an iron drum, having its periphery studded with steel spikes, 
is made to revolve at the rate of about 300 revolutions per 
minute. " The rags are fed into the first cylinder by a 
travelhng belt, and dashed through from the one to the 
other by the action of the revolving drum, and from the 
second cylinder thrown forward on the duster. This con- 
sists of a large rectangular wooden case, in the interior of 
which an iron cage, covered with coarse wire-cloth, revolves 
slowly at right angles to the devil. This cage is set at a 
slight incline, so that the rags which are thrown into it by the 
willow at one end slowly pass to the other, while the dust, 
etc., which have been disengaged by the action of the willow, 
falls through the wire-cloth, and the dusted rags pass out at 
the other end, now ready for the boiler." 

Before describing other forms of rag duster we would call 
the reader's attention to the different firms mentioned on page 
142, from whose catalogues all information regarding the 
workings of the various dusters in common use can be obtained. 
It would not be possible in a volume of the size of the present 
one to fully describe all the machines made and used in 
paper-making, and we shall consequently confine our atten- 
tion principally to those possessing features of novelty, and 
the complete list of patents which this volume contains of 
all inventions relating to paper-making will enable the theorist 
or practical man to readily inform himself as to the exact 
state of the art up to the close of the year 1885. 

12 



17^^ THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The Waste from Dusting^ etc. 

The amount of loss resulting from passing the rags 
through the duster cannot be accurately estimated, as it 
varies with their nature and condition, the number and con- 
struction of the machines through which they are passed, the 
manner in which the rags have been cut, etc. When the cut- 
ting knives are dull a much greater loss results from ravelling 
than is the case when the knives are kept properly sharpened. 

Prouteaux, in his '■Guide Pratique de la Fabrication du 
Papier et du Carton^' ^ on p. 25, repeats the statement made 
by him nearly a quarter of a century since regarding the 
mean waste in the dusting, viz : — 

1.5 per cent, for clean -white rags ; 
2.5 to 3.5 " " hems and seams ; 

4 to 5 " " rags containing straw. 

Owing to the greater care now given to the condition and 
classification of rags by foreign shippers than was formerly 
the case, and the improvements which have been made in 
the dusters now employed in the mills of the United States, 
it is probable that the above figures are 25 per cent, too 
high. 

The waste of rags from the moisture which they contain, 
overhauling, cutting, and dusting, may be stated to be as 
follows : — 

6 to 8 per cent, for fine and half-fine whites, 



8 to 12 " 


" coarse whites, 


6 to 9 " 


" white cottons. 


8 to 12 " 


" colored cottons, 


12 to 18 " 


" pack-cloths and coarse threads containing straw, 


15 to 18 " 


" ropes not of hemp, 


18 to 25 " 


" hempen ropes containing much straw. 



» Paris, 11 



DUSTING EAGS. 179 

The above figures are only approximate however, and are 
not, of course, intended to apply to every case, the only 
intention being to give some conception of the proportion of 
loss which the same materials suff"er under the same treat- 
ment. 

The loss is less in new and unbleached rags than in old 
rags. 

In some paper manufactories on the Continent they have 
substituted for the dry dusting a washing process which gives 
less loss of fine thready matters. 

In this connection we shall later (page 185) speak of a 
combined washing or cleansing and boiling process, 

A MacTiine for Reducing the Loss in Cleaning Cut Rags. 

The contrivance shown in Figs. 53 to 59 is the invention, 
of Messrs. John B. Hart and Emory H, Walker, of Holyoke, 
Mass. ; the object being to provide a. treatment for rags and' 
similar materials used in paper-manufacture, by which the 
rags, after being cut, will be separated in a degree from 
foreign substances without so great a waste of small rags as 
is common to processes now in use. 

Fig. 53 is a perspective view of the invention. Fig. 54 
is a diagram showing in side elevation and section the lead- 
ing details of the device ; and Figs. 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59 
are enlarged views of certain parts in detail. 

In Fig. 53, J. is a frame or guide containing an endless 
belt, 5, passing over the roll (7, and over suitable rolls (not 
shown) on other portions of the frame. The roll G is 



180 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



attached to a shaft, D, having at one end the tight and 
loose pulleys E^ for the purpose of transmitting motion to 



FijT. 53. 




Fig. 54. 




Fii^, 55. Fig. 56. Fio;. 57. 



J^-- 



IL 



Dnf~n 



DD a n D 



o o o o o 



FiV. 58. 




Fia- 59. 

w 

w 

mm 



the roll G. The shaft D passes through suitable bearings 
ill the posts F F. Below the roll (7, and attached to the 
posts F F hy pins G G, or in any other proper manner, is 



DUSTING RAGS. 181 

the tray H, having at its opposite end an apron, /, and 
having its bottom formed of open work, J (more fully 
described hereafter). At the end of the tray H^ which 
bears the apron /, are two posts, K K^ supporting the cam- 
shaft jL, and a second roll-shaft, M. The cam-shaft L con- 
tains two cams, N N, and a pulley, 0, as shown. This 
pulley is connected by the belt P with a similar pulley, 
Q, on the first roll-shaft Z>, and by the connection described 
the revolution of the first roll causes revolution of the cams. 

On the tray Hare the projections R, resting on the cams 
N, whereby the revolution of the cams produces a vibratory 
motion of the tray H. The second roll, S, carries an end- 
less belt similar to that on roll C, previously described, and 
receives motion in a suitable manner. 

The arrangement of the various parts described and the 
direction of their motion are shown in Fig. 54. 

The action of the mechanism described is as follows : The 
cut rags to be operated upon are delivered on to the belt or 
carrier J5, moving in the direction shown, and are carried 
forward over the roll C and dropped into the tray II. This 
delivery to the tray is gradual and dependent upon the 
velocity of the roll. The rags, after striking the upper end 
of the tray, gradually slide toward its lower extremity — 
impelled by gravity and the vibratory motion of the tray. 
The bottom of the tray is formed of open-work made of bars, 
as shown in Fig. 55, or wires or rods, as shown in Fig. 66, 
arranged parallel to each other, or laid in diff"erent directions, 
crossing or interlacing as indicated in Figs. 57 and 58, or 
the openings may be perforations in a continuous sheet, as 



182 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

shown at Fig. 59. As the rags pass along the bottom of the 
tray the dust and other impurities work to the bottom and 
fall through. Small rags also pass through and are deposited 
below, where they may be collected and used, whereas, with- 
out this device, they would remain mixed with the larger 
pieces until blown out by a " duster," when, by their small 
size, they would pass through the meshes of the screen and 
be lost. 

The object of the apron /is to carry the rags fairly on to 
the second belt-carrier, which moves them to the desired 
point of delivery. 

The same gentlemen have also made another improvement 
in appliances for the treatment of cut rags used in the manu- 
facture of paper ; and the objects of their improvements are 
to secure a thorough mixing, stirring, and shaking of the rags 
for the purpose of separating foreign substances from the 
rags and disengaging small particles of cloth from the larger 
ones, and they claim to attain these objects by the mechanism 
shown in Figs. 60, 61, and 62. 

Fig. 60 is a vertical section showing this second invention 
and parts connected therewith. Fig. 61 is a perspective view 
of a portion of the iuA^ention in detail, and Fig. 62 is also a 
perspective view of a modified form of parts represented in 
Fig. 61. 

In Fig. 60 J. is a roll or drum, which is driven by suit- 
able mechanism, and by its revolution imparts motion to the 
endless belt or carrier B. The rags to be acted upon are 
placed upon the top side of the carrier i?, and, travelling in 



DUSTING RAGS. 



183 



the direction indicated by the arrow, pass over the roll A 
and fall therefrom. 

G is Si screen, made of lattice-work, interlaced wire, or 
other suitable material, propeHy arranged to form a perfo- 
rated receptacle, and located, as shown, to receive the rags 
delivered by the carrier B. 

Fig. 60, 




Fm. Gl. 



Fig. G2. 





D is a shaft or cylinder having projecting arms, E E, etc. 
The shaft D is supported by suitable bearings, and has a 
pulley, F, through which rotary motion can be transmitted to 
the shaft or cylinder JD. The cylinder D is placed beyond 



184 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the carrier-roll A, and above and nearly in contact with: the 
screen c, for the purpose of stirring and shaking the rags 
passing through the apparatus. 

6^^ is a bonnet or shield, which covers and closes in the 
space abovit the cy Under D, for the purpose of preventing 
the throwing off of the rags by the action of the cylinder D 
and arms E E o^ same. 

H H are wings attached to the bonnet (r, for the purpose 
of catching a part of the rags thrown upward by the revolv- 
ing shaft, and allowing them to fall again upon the cylinder 
to be further acted upon. The arms E E^ etc., may be made 
in single continuous pieces, as shown in Fig. 61, or they 
may be made up of sections of any desirable form, one 
arrangement being shown in Fig. 62, 

In operation the, rags fall upon the carrier B^ pass over 
the roll A^ fall upon the upper part of the screen G and upon 
the rapidly-revolving cylinder D. The arms E E, etc., toss 
the rags about in the confined space between the bonnet G 
and the screen G, and thoroughly stir and shake them, 
so that the dust is separated from the rags and caused to fall 
through the screen, while, in due time, the rags descend to 
the lower part of the inclosed space. From the lower part 
of the bonnet G the rags slide down the incline of the screen 
and are carried away by suitable devices. 

The screen and carriers form, in combination, a device for 
the cleaning of rags and the saving of small rags, and are fully 
shown in Figs. 53 to 59. 



WET DUSTING. 185 



Wet Dusting. 



Combined Wasliing or Cleansing wid Boiling Process. 

The apparatus shown in Figs. 63 and 64 is the invention of 
Mr. W. E. Newton, of London, England, and the method 
employed by him is a combined washing or cleansing and 
boiling process, which is effected in a device in which it is 
claimed that the operations can be conducted with greater 
facility than has previously been the case. 

The rags generally have adhering to them a good deal of 
dirt, which can be easily removed, and this is done by wash- 
ing them in plain hot water in the apparatus shown in Figs. 
63 and 64, before submitting them to the action of any 
chemical solutions, for the purpose of more thoroughly 
cleansing and bleaching them. A large proportion of the 
dirt and impurities may thus be removed in a short time, 
and these particles, being heavy, sink into the lower part of 
the apparatus, and may be drawn off in the form of mud 
without wasting the chemical solutions used in the sub- 
sequent processes. 

Fig. 63 is a sectional plan view, and Fig. 64 a vertical 
section of Newton's apparatus, which consists of a cylindrical 
framework or cage, a a, covered externally with perforated 
metal or wire-gauze, and provided internally with any con- 
venient number of vertical ribs, a\ which project radially 
from the circumference toward the the centre. This per- 
forated metal cage a rests upon cross-bars, h &, or upon a 
ledge fixed inside the external casing c c, leaving an annular 



186 



TJIE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



space between the external casing and the outside of the 
cage a. Inside this cage a is mounted a frame, which is 
fixed on the vertical spindle e, and consists of a series of 
beaters or stirrers, d' d\ of peculiar shape. The lower part 

Fie 63. 




of the spindle e is made square at e', and fits into a square 
socket in the end of the short shaft /, which passes through 
a stuffing-box, g, at the bottom of the casing c, and is sup- 
ported in a step, /«, below. On this shaft /is keyed a bevel 
pinion, i, which gears into and is driven by a similar wheel, 
y, which is actuated by a band from any prime mover to the 
pulleys on the end of the shaft /. It will be seen that the 
beaters d' d' extend from the upper part of the spindle e down 
to the bottom of the cage a a, or nearly so, and that the beaters 
are much wider at the bottom than at the top. The effect of 



WET DUSTING. 



187 



this peculiar shape of the beaters is that when they are in 
operation greater motion is given to the lower part of the 
water than to the upper portion, thus creating a kind of 
whirlpool action of the water, and a vertical or tumbling circu- 




lation of the water and rags in contradistinction to a hori- 
zontal circular motion, thereby causing the dirt and impurities 
to be more readily removed from the rags. 

After passing through the perforated sides of the cage a 
into the annular space between it and the external casing, 
the dirt and impurities are deposited in the form of mud at 
the bottom of the vessel c, and may be drawn off through 



188 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the pipe d before the chemical solutions are added for the 
subsequent processes. 

If desired, the water in the apparatus may be heated by 
jets of steam, which may be hijected from nozzles into the 
annular space outside the cage a, or into any other con- 
venient part of the apparatus. 

At the bottom of the external wooden vessel c is made a 
space to receive the mud and sediment from the dirty rags. 
This may be covered over with a false bottom, 7t;, as shown 
in the drawings, and this false bottom may be perforated or 
not, as may be preferred. 

The operation of the apparatus is as follows : The rags 
are charged into the perforated cage a through the top, 
which, if desired, may be inclosed or covered in by doors, 
as shown at I I. Water is then admitted, and, if cold, it 
may be heated by mjecting steam into it, as already men- 
tioned. The shaft e with the beaters d! may then be rotated, 
and, by knocking the rags about in the water, it is claimed 
will quickly detach the greater part of the dirt, which will 
pass through the perforated sides of the cage a into the 
annular space beyond, and gradually subside in the outside 
water, and descend into the mud space below the false 
bottom A;, from whence it may be drawn off from time to 
time through the pipe c'. A solution of soda or other 
equivalent chemical substance may then be run into the 
apparatus, and the whole of the liquid with the rags in it 
may be boiled by means of the steam for any desired time, 
or until the rags are quite clean. They may then be 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 189 

bleached and reduced into pulp, and be converted into paper 
in the ordinary manner. 

The steam-pipes for heating the water have not been 
shown, as it will be found that by simply causing steam to 
bubble up in the water from nozzles, in the manner already 
explained, the water will be sufficiently heated. 

It will be noticed that as all the driving-gear is placed 
below, the cage a and the parts contained therein, together 
with the central shaft e, may be lifted out of the outer 
vessel c for the convenience of emptying the rags out of the 
cage, which may then be replaced in its original position. 

In practice the inventor states that it will be found con- 
venient to use three of the above-described apparatuses in 
combination, so arranged in reference to each other that the 
cage a wdth its contents may be lifted out of one apparatus 
and placed in the next. 

The first apparatus may then be used for the preliminary 
washing out of the loose dirt, the second for boiling the rags 
in any chemical solution, and the third for the boiling or 
bleaching operation, or for simply washing in cold water. 

Waste-Paper Duster and Washer. 

Messrs. Hiram Allen and Lyman S. Mason, of Sandy 
Hill, N. Y., in their process for preparing pulp from papers, 
use a rotary self-discharging dusting engine by which the 
dry " imperfections" are subjected to the desired tumbling, 
beating, tearing, and screening action, from which machine 
the waste papers are progressively introduced in loose con- 



190 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



dition into water in a circuit vat where they are subjected in 
heated alkaline water to the action of a current-producing 
paddle-wheel for the purpose of discharging the ink and 
separating the fibres. 

The process is intended to cover all the stages of reducing 
the imperfections to bleached and finished pulp ; but in this 
section we shall deal only with the dusting and washing 
mechanism employed. 

Fig. 65 shows, in side elevation and partial vertical 
longitudinal section, the dusting engine employed by Messrs. 



ri<r. G5. 




Allen and Mason, the section being at about the line to ' 
to' in Figs. 66 and 67. 

Fig. 66 represents a transverse section of the same dusting- 
engine at about the line v v in Fig. 65, and viewed in the 
direction pointed by the arrow u in that figure, with an ele- 



vation of modified driving devices. 



Fig. 67 is an elevation 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 



191 



of a section at about the line ttm Fig. 65, and viewed in the 
direction indicated by the arrow s in that figure. Fig. 68 

Fis. 66. 




is a perspective view of the exterior of the same dusting- 
engine illustrated in the other figures with feeding appliances. 



Fig. 67. 




Fig. 69 is a perspective representation of a circuit-vat 
furnished with a paddle-wheel and a rotary washer, and 



192 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



arranged to receive papers in loose condition from the 
dusting-engine, and suitable for use in transforming the 
papers into washed and bleached pulp. 



Fig. G8. 




Fijr. 69. 



A is the stationary support for the mechanisms. 

The dusting-engine has a rapidly-revolving beater, F, Figs. 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 193 

65, 66, 67, within a tubular slowly-rotating screen, (7, that 
is open at its ends and is incased closely about its ends and 
loosely at its sides by a cover, H^ that has a feed-opening, a, 
in one end and a discharge-passage, Z>, at the other end. 
The general action of this dusting-engine is similar to that 
of some other dusting-engines heretofore used, that is, papers 
introduced at the feed-aperture a into the slowly-rotating 
screen will be therein rapidly struck, tumbled, and loosened 
up repeatedly by the fast-revolving beater, so as to separate 
from the papers dust and dirt, that may then fall down 
through the meshes of the screen on to the bottom of the 
casing as the papers are progressively beaten and tumbled 
along through the screen and are discharged in loose con- 
dition at h. 

The circuit-vat. Fig. 69, is supplied with water, Z^ with or 
without alkali therein, and is furnished with a paddle-wheel, 
/ or /', constructed and arranged so that as the wheel 
revolves and produces a strong current in the water through- 
out the vat, dry papers progressively introduced in loose 
condition into the vat will be progressively immersed in the 
water by the paddles c of the wheel, and subjected to the 
soft disintegrating actions of the paddles in the water. 

To avoid having in the paper-mill a large pile of the loose 
dry papers discharged from the dusting-engine, and to pre- 
vent the consequent loss of room and danger from fire, and 
also to avoid having persons stow away the loose papers, or 
feed them into the pulping-vat, as they are discharged from 
the dusting-engine, the inventors combine with the dusting- 
engine and pulping-vat an automatic transferring device, 

13 



194 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

by means of which the loose papers discharged from the 
dusting-engine are at once progressively transferred into the 
pulping or circuit vat. 

In carrying out this combination of the dusting-engine, 
circuit vat, and device for transferring the papers from the 
dusting-engine into the vat, such transferring device, of 
course, varies in construction according to the relative 
positions of the circuit- vat and dusting-engine. For instance, 
when, as represented in Figs. 68 and 69, the dusting-engine 
B is nearly over the circuit-vat, the paper-transferring device 
J^then preferably consists of a simple chute, through which 
the loose dusted papers will descend by their gravity from 
the dusting-engine into the circuit-vat. 

When the circuit pulping- vat is located over, higher than, 
or far from the dusting-engine, the inventors combine with 
the dusting-engine and circuit-vat some suitable elevator 
or conveyer, for transferring the loose papers into the 
circuit-vat as fast as they are discharged from the dusting- 
engine. While the papers are being introduced in successive 
small quantities or progressively into the water in the 
circuit-vat by hand, or from the dusting-engine by automatic 
means, during one or two hours (more or less), the revo- 
lutions of the paddle-wheel / are continued, and thereafter 
the rotations of the paddle-wheel are continued in the 
mixture of papers and water for an hour or two (more or 
less), or until the papers become reduced to the proper pulpy 
condition to permit the ready washing out of the dissolved 
sizing and of the disintegrated ink in water, when printed 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 195 

papers are thus introduced and treated in alkaline water in 
the vat. 

In order to provide means whereby the dusting-engine 
can be kept constantly in use without any accumulation of 
the dusted papers, after completing the supply of papers 
from the dusting-engine to the vat, and while the papers are 
being reduced to coarse pulp in that vat, a second vat can 
be suitably placed and a conduit arranged for transferring 
the dusted papers in loose condition from the dusting-engine 
into such vats at will. 

While introducing the paper into the water in the pulping- 
vat and during the subsequent operation of reducing the 
papers to pulp by the rotation of the paddle-wheel in the 
vat, the water in the vat is kept at a temperature of from 
about 100° to 212° F., and preferably at about 160° to 190° 
F., or at whatever temperature shall secure the quick solu- 
tion of the sizing of the paper and of the vehicle of the ink 
when printed papers are used. To quickly and cheaply 
accomplish the dissolution of the ink, there is added to the 
heated water in the vat some suitable solvent, such as caustic 
soda, soda-ash, or equivalent alkali. The quantity of solvent 
used may be sufficient to make the specific gravity of the 
water in the vat with the papers about one-third to two-thirds 
of 1° Baume, more or less. This alkali is introduced into 
the water in the vat either before, during, or soon after the 
introduction of the printed papers. When the papers are 
not printed, the alkali may be omitted. The papers will be 
reduced to pulp in the water in the vat by the action of the 
paddle-wheel without having the water heated; but the 



196 _ THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

moderate heating of the water hastens the pulping of the 
papers. 

To secure the proper continued heating of the water, 
papers, and pulp in the vats steam is introduced by suitable 
means, as, for instance, by the pipes g. Fig. 69, having a stop 
valve or valves, and communicating at one end with a sup- 
ply of steam and open at the other end or ends to the water 
in the vat near its bottom. 

Printed papers it is claimed can be quickly and cheaply 
transformed into clean, refined, and bleached pulp, according 
to the present process, by the use of the apparatus or mechan- 
ism represented in Fig. 69, by first reducing the papers to 
coarse pulp and dissolving the ink and sizing therefrom by 
progressively introducing the papers in dry loose condition 
into the water in the vat, while the washer ilf is kept out of the 
water by the gearing Z, and the paddle-wheel /is constantly 
revolved, and steam is admitted into the water for the pipes 
f/, if desired, until sufficient papers are introduced, and there- 
after continuing the rotation of the paddle-wheel, with alkali 
in the water, and the admission of steam, when desirable, 
until the papers become reduced to coarse pulp and the ink 
and sizing are dissolved. Then refining the coarse pulp, and 
removing the dissolved ink and sizing with the soiled water 
by revolving the paddle-wheel and the lowered washer Mm. 
the pulp and water in the vat, and adding clean water, with 
or without the admission of steam by the pipe g^ until the 
reduced pulp shall be sufficiently clean for bleaching. Then 
further refining the washed pulp and bleaching the same in 
the water in the same vat by adding thereto the solution of 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 197 

chloride of lime or other bleaching agent, and revolving the 
paddle-wheel /in the pulp in water while the washer is out 
of action, with or without the introduction of steam by the 
pipe g^ until the pulp shall become suitably bleached. The 
washer is then lowered into the water and the rotation of 
the washer and paddle-wheel continued with the addition of 
clean water, when desired, until the bleaching agent shall be 
sufficiently washed out and the pulp properly refined. The 
rotation of the paddle-wheel is then continued while subject- 
ing the pulp in water to the agent for neutralizing the bleach- 
ing agent, and while washing out the neutralizing agent 
when necessary. 

When practicable in carrying out this process it is prefer- 
able to have the dusting-engine above the pulping-vats, and 
those vats above the washing-vats, and the latter above the 
bleaching vats, and all connected by conduits, through which 
the materials are transferred by their gravity from each upper 
apparatus to the next one below. Whenever the vats shall 
not be thus arranged, a rotary fan-pump and connecting- 
pipes can be used, or other suitable known means employed 
for transferring the pulp in water from the pulping vat into 
the washing vat, and from the latter into the bleaching vat. 

To provide excellent means whereby old folded news- 
papers, pamphlets, and other papers can be easily taken in 
hand, torn apart, assorted, freed from loose dirt, and thrown 
upon an endless turning feed apron, i^, of the dusting-engine 
in the great quantities, and with the uniformity required to 
fully and properly supply the dusting-engine by persons 
seated or standing by the feeding apron, there are provided 



198 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



tables S, Figs. 68, 70, 71, 72, each adapted to support, as 
at r, a mass, bale, box, barrel, or package of the papers, and 
each furnished at one end part with a drawer or dirt pit, ???, 
Fig. 70, preferably covered by a screen or grating, ??z', and 



Fis. 70. 




FiV. 71. 




Fis. 72. 




the tables are arranged with their drawer or dirt-pit ends 
next to the feed-apron R, and at suitable distances apart to 
permit a person to conveniently stand at one or either side 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 199 

of each table and there handle the papers and throw them 
upon the feed-apron. The number of the tables, S, will be 
according to the number of persons required to supply the 
papers to the dusting-engine by the feed-apron. When the 
space in front of the dusting-engine is too limited to accommo- 
date the required number of the tables along the main apron 
jR, some or all of them can be arranged along a lateral feed- 
apron located as indicated at R\ in Figs. 70 and 72, to dis- 
charge the papers placed thereon on to the main feed-apron. 
To render the dusting-engine capable of progressively and 
thoroughly tearing apart, beating, dusting, and freely dis- 
charging in loose condition papers as fast as they shall be 
properly fed into the rotary screen G, that screen is made 
with the series of lengthwise internally-projecting bars, n, 
and in a tapering form, much the largest at its discharge 
end, about as is illustrated by Figs. 65, 66, 67, 70, and 72, 
and the rotary beater F is also made with its body F' and 
the series of pin-teeth o of a similar or nearly corresponding 
tapering form in general outline and of suitable smaller 
diameter than the screen, substantially as illustrated in the 
drawings. The screen and beater are also furnished with 
driving mechanisms, whereby slow rotary motion is imparted 
to the hollow tapering screen and a greatly faster rotary 
motion is given to the tapering beater either in the same or 
opposite directions. By thus having the slowly-rotating 
hollow internally-ribbed screen 6r of a greatly tapering form, 
and the rapidly-revolving pin-toothed beater i^ of a suitably 
corresponding tapering shape, old papers fed into the small 
end of the screen can be thoroughly broken up, dusted, and 



200 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

discharged freely in loose condition at a greatly faster rate 
than can be done by a paper-dusting-engine of like size and 
movements, but having either its hollow-ribbed screen or its 
winged or pin-toothed beater of a general cylindrical shape 
or of nearly uniform diameter throughout. 

The pin-teeth o of the beater can be of circular, angular, 
or other suitable form in cross-section, and arranged together 
in spiral lines, as shown, or otherwise. The body F' of the 
beater may consist of a tapering log of wood mounted on a 
shaft, p, and have the teeth o driven or screwed into holes in 
the log ; or the body of the beater may be of other suitable 
construction, and the teeth secured thereto in any suitable 
manner. 

In order to make the beater very durable at a cheap rate, 
it is composed of a rotary shaft, j), a series of cast-iron heads, jp', 
fast on the shaft, a series of tapering staves, g, secured to the 
lieads by bolts or screws, q', and the series of pin-teeth o, 
having bases, o', secured to the bars by bolts or screws, as 
shown by Figs. 65, 66, and 67. In the illustrations the 
shaft 2^ of the beater F is shown supported by journal-bear- 
ings, j9^, Fig. 65, on the dusting-engine frame ; and the hollow 
screen G has circular rim bearings, jj\ that are supported by 
the wheels p^, fast on the shafts j/, that are supported in 
journal-bearings in the frame of the dusting-engine, so that 
by the rotation of one of the shafts, ^j\ the screen will be 
revolved. 

. In practice the revolutions of the beater F may be about 
thirty to one of the screen G, or in a considerably greater or 
less ratio. When the screen G is about ten feet long and 



WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 201 

about five feet in diameter at the large end, and the beater 
F is of corresponding size, as illustrated in Fig. 65, a good 
speed for the screen is from about eight to ten, and for the 
beater from about two hundred and fifty to three hundred 
revolutions in a minute ; but good work may be done when 
they revolve considerably faster or slower. Such different 
rates of rotation are to be imparted to the screen and beater 
by any suitable gearing or belting from any suitable motor 
or motors. In the mechanism represented by Figs. 65, 66, 
and 67 motion is imparted to the beater F^ to the shaft ^9'^ 
of one of the two pairs of wheels p*, that support the screen 
G^ and to the exhausting-blower Q^ all from the one driving- 
shaft T. by means of the pulleys, counter-shafts, and belts 
clearly represented by those figures. 

In carrying out this invention the paddle-wheels can have 
the active faces of their paddles in planes parallel to the 
axes and inclined to the radii of the wheels, as shown in 
the drawings, or in planes parallel to the axes and radii; or 
the paddles may be of various shapes and arrangements, 
provided the wheels shall operate as already described. 
The rate of rotation of the paddle-wheels can be consider- 
ably varied. A good speed is ten to twelve revolutions in a 
minute, when the wheel is about seven feet in diameter and 
has eight paddles, each about eight feet long and three feet 
wide, arranged as in the wheel /, and the wheel is arranged 
to revolve in a circuit-vat, of corresponding size, as illus- 
trated by Fig. 69. 

The paddle-wheels, rotary washers, dusting-engine and its 
feed-apron, exhausting-blower, and devices for transferring 



202 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the materials may be actuated by any suitable mechanisms 
from any suitable motor or motors. 

List of American Patents for Rag-Dusters. 

For list of patents for rag-dusters issued by the government of the United 
States of America, see page 143. 



BOILING RAGS. 203 



CHAPTER IX. 

boiling rags stationary boilers revolving boilers 

treating colored rags — boiling waste paper boiling 

straw boiling esparto — boiling manilla and jute 

boiling wood soda-recovery acid or bisulphite pro- 
cesses of treating wood list of patents for preparing 

cellulose from wood by the acid or bisulphite pro- 
cesses list of patents for digesters with lead linings 

list of all american patents for digesters for paper 

pulp methods other than the mechanical, soda, and 

bisulphite processes for the treatment of wood. 

Boiling Rags. 

After being dusted, the rags are next boiled in an alkaline 
lye. Prior to the substitution of the boiling process, the 
rags were subjected to fermentation by piling them in stone 
vats for five or six weeks, and frequently adding water, 
which operation curtailed the power required for the subse- 
quent mechanical comminution ; but the process was so 
wasteful that the modern method of boiling was substituted, 
the invention being that of Schauffelen, of Heilbronn. 

The operation of boiling is a most important one, and 
mistakes here made cannot afterwards be rectified ; it is, 
consequently, imperative that intelligent care should be 
given to the rags during the boiling, so as not to injure their 
texture or make the cost of the process too great. 



204 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The object of boiling is not only to get rid of the dirt 
remaining in the rags after the dusting and the removal of 
some of the coloring matter, but also to decompose a par- 
ticular glutinous substance, which, if allowed to remain, 
impairs the flexibility of the fibres, and renders them too 
harsh and stiff to be readily fabricated into paper. 

If the rags are improperly boiled, they will, in addition 
to consuming too much chlorine, make an inferior appear- 
, ing paper. 

The alkaline substances employed in boiling are fresh 
burned quick-lime, carbonate of soda, and caustic soda. 

The quantities of chemicals used, as well as the pressure 
and length of time the rags remain in the boiler, vary with 
the character and condition of the rags, and upon the alki- 
metrical degree of the agent employed. 

Various forms of vessels are used in which to boil the 
rags. Some are stationary, and others are made to revolve 
by means of suitable gearing; the latter class of boilers 
being commonly either cylindrical or spherical, cylindrical 
boilers being usually geared so as to revolve horizontally. 

.Fig. 73 shows the form of spherical rotary boiler used 
on the Continent, and is about the same as those used in 
Great Britain and in the United States. In the gearing, 
however, a worm is generally substituted for the small 
pinion shown in the illustration. 

Some manufacturers of fine paper still prefer to boil the 
rags in stationary tubs, which are made of wood, and in 
such cases Soda is used to saponify the fatty substances con- 
tained in the rags. 



BOILING RAGS. 



205 



Most manufacturers use lime in the boiling process for all 
ordinary grades of paper ; some, however, prefer soda, and 
others employ a mixture of lime and soda. 



Fiff. 73. 




When rotary boilers are used, lime is probably equally as 
effective with uncolored rags as soda, whether used alone or 
mixed with lime. The quantity of lime employed varies 
according to its composition and the condition of the rags, 
and ranges from about five to fifteen pounds per hundred 
pounds of rags. 



206 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

It is well known that the solvent properties of water far 
exceed those of any other known liquid. A very large pro- 
portion of all the different salts are more or less soluble in 
it, the solubility increasing generally as the temperature 
rises, so that a hot saturated solution deposits crystals on 
cooling. There are a few exceptions to this rule, one of 
the most remarkable of which is common salt, the solubility 
of which is nearly the same at all temperatures, the hydrate 
of lime (slaked lime) being more soluble in cold than in 
hot water, sulphate of lime being also less soluble in hot 
than in cold water, and insoluble at 302° F., or between 
284° and 302° F. The solvent properties of water are still 
further increased when heated in a strong vessel under pres- 
sure ; hence the greater the pressure under which the rags 
are boiled, the smaller the proportion of lime which it will 
hold in solution, and the less the quantity required to accom- 
plish the object of the boiling. 

An excess of lime will not injure the rags, but as it 
would be waste, it is best to employ the lime only in the 
necessary quantities. The pressure of the steam for any 
class of rags should seldom exceed thirty pounds. 

Some manufacturers use a mixture of lime and soda-ash 
in about the following proportions: — 

For 100 lbs. of tarred rope or similar coarse material 
" " deeply dyed rags .... 

In some cases it will be found that better results will be 
obtained from colored rags, such as cuttings from print 
cloths, by first boiling them with about 5 per cent, of lime 



Lime. 


Soda. 


15 lbs. 


6 lbs. 


12 " 


3 " 



BOILING RAGS. 207 

under about 25 pounds pressure in a rotary boiler, and, 
after washing in the engine and put into drainers, they 
should be again boiled in the rotary with a solution of about 
2 pounds of soda ash to each 100 pounds of rags. 

The following table shows the proportions of lime and 
soda ash used on the Continent for boiling the various 
stuffs : — 

No. 1 stuflf Nos. 3 and 5 stuff No. 4 stuff 

for 100 lbs. rags. for 100 lbs. rags. for 100 lbs. rags. 

Lime 5.4 lbs. 8.1 lbs. 8.0 

Soda- ash (48 per cent.) . 2.8 " 3.8 " 4.0 

The boiling is usually continued for twelve hours under a 
pressure of 30 pounds of steam in a boiler revolving hori- 
zontally. 

The boiling of ropes for tissue, copying, and cigarette 
.paper is continued for twenty-four hours under a pressure of 
fSO pounds of steam, and for each 100 pounds of rope 16.5 
pounds of lime and 11.5 pounds of soda-ash, 48 per cent., 
are used. 

Oblong wooden boxes, measuring about fifteen by five 
feet, and four feet deep, are used in which to prepare the 
milk of lime. The boxes are divided into three compart- 
ments, and in order to retain small stones, etc., false bottoms, 
perforated with one-half-inch holes, are fitted to each com- 
partment. In the third compartment a revolving drum, 
similar to the drum-washer of a half-stuff engine, is so 
arranged that the milk of lime is strained as it flows through 
a movable sluice in the division between the second and 
third compartments, and is discharged through a pipe directly 
into the rag-boilers. A finer wire strainer can be placed 



208 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

over the mouth of the pipe leading to the boilers in case it 
is desired to keep out finer particles of sand and grit. By 
means of suitable waste pipes connected with each compart- 
ment of the box all refuse can be readily carried away with 
the water. 

The best way to introduce the soda-ash is to dissolve it, 
and strain through a fine wire cloth as it passes into the 
boiler. 

Care should be exercised to use sufiicient water with the 
rags during the boiling, as otherwise they are liable to 
come from the boiler with an undesirable dark appearance, 
which cannot be removed by either washing or bleaching. 

The majority of manufacturers in the United States use 
lime in the boiling process, and the result is most satisfac- 
tory, but as caustic soda is often employed in Europe and 
sometimes in America, we will here give the quantities of 
caustic soda employed in boiling the dififerent classes of rags, 

S P F F F are boiled with 5 per cent, of lime, and, after 
washing in the boiler, are afterwards boiled with 2 per cent, 
of soda-ash. 



100 lbs 


S P FF 




require 


10.5 




SP F 






12.25 




Fines 






G.12 




Seconds 






5.25 




L FX 






17.5 




CL FX 






24.5 




C C L F 
FF 


X 




2G.25 
lo.O 



STATIONARY BOILERS. 



209 



Stationary Boilers. 

'Jlie boiling is continued for about ten or twelve hours in 
stationary boilers without vomit, under a steam pressure of 
from 20 to 25 pounds. 

Fig. 74 shows a section of a form of stationary boiler 
much used in Great Britain. " It consists of an upright 



Ficf. 74. 




cylinder of half-inch iron, about eight feet in diameter, by 
six feet deep, and fitted with a perforated false bottom, 
on which the rags rest. The boiler is further fitted with a 
filling door, A, at the top, and an emptying door, B, below. 



14 



210 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

After being charged with rags, it is filled to about one-half 
its height with water ; a sufficient quantity of caustic soda, 
varying according to the nature of the rags, is introduced ; 
the door is then closed, and steam is then admitted by a 
small pipe, (7, which is contained in, and communicates at 
the foot with, a larger pipe, i), and causes a constant circu- 
lation of hot liquid, which is dispensed all over the boiler by 
striking against the hood E at the top. This is technically 
known as the ' vomit.' The rags are boiled in this solution 
of caustic soda for ten or twelve hours, when the steam is 
turned off, and the liquid is discharged by the pipe G. 
After a subsequent washing with cold water in the boiler, 
the door B is opened, and the boiled rags withdrawn into 
small trucks, and picked by women to remove impurities, 
such as India-rubber, etc." 

E EVOLVING Boilers. 

In revolving boilers as heretofore constructed steam has 
been introduced generally through the journals at one end 
of the boiler, sometimes at each end ; but no provision has 
been made for determining the height of the water-level in 
them, nor for drawing off an excess of water, nor for know- 
ing exactly the steam-pressure and heat inside of the boiler. 
An apparatus has been devised and used for the purpose of 
reducing the pressure of steam in the revolver below that 
carried in the boilers where the steam is generated for 
common use in paper-mills ; but it is uncertain in use, 
and only operates when in good order by withdrawing the 



REYOLYING BOILERS. 



211 



steam. To accomplish these several and other desh'able 
results which the old form of construction failed to attain, 
Mr. George F. Wilson, of East Providence, R. I., has devised 
and patented the following-described mechanism and appli- 
ances. 

Fio-. 75. 




Fig. 75, letter J., represents a view of the revolving boiler 
with its man-hole entrances used for filling the boiler, and 
others at the bottom, which, by reason of the great weight 
of the man-hole entrances, it has been found necessary to 
use as balances for the upper ones. Fig. 76 is a vertical 



Fiff. 76. 




longitudinal section of the revolver, showing the proper 
height of the water-level or water-line and the means which 



212 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the inventor has devised for the introduction of steam into 
the contents of the boiler below that water-line. 

In order to determine where the water-line is inside the 
boiler, which, when in use, is hermetically sealed, the pipe 
h is inserted into the steam-pipe carrying steam into the 
boiler at the point c and between the boiler and the steam- 
gauge. The pipe A h runs around above the boiler in any 
convenient way for fastening it to the other or right-hand 
end of the boiler, through the journal of which is inserted 
the steam-pipe ^, which has been connected with the pipe 
h h by a glass tube, g\ Fig. 76. 

At /is shown a strainer, which, in drawing oiT the water 
through the valve </", prevents the rags from entering the 
pipe and stopping it up. This arrangement secures an 
indication not only of the pressure, and consequently the 
heat inside of the boiler, but enables the operator to deter- 
mine the height of the water in the boiler by means of the 
glass tube g' . The water, being of greater specific gravity 
than steam, falls to the same level in the glass tube that it 
has inside the boiler. The steam-gauge i is put on to indicate 
the pressure at this end in the same manner as it is indi- 
cated by the pressure-gauge i' at the other end of the boiler. 

The valve g" is provided for drawing off the water in the 
boiler, should it at any time rise to too high a point. 

To secure the introduction of the steam below the water- 
line and prevent its introduction above, the following- 
described method has been devised : The steam-pipes e e 
are inserted and attached to the inner sides of the boiler by 
means of a hook, 5, or other similar contrivance (shown in 



REVOLVING BOILERS. 



213 



Fig. 80), and are perforated with holes in sufficient numbers 
throughout the length of the pipe to secure the introduction 
of steam into the contents of the boiler below the water-line. 
The method which the inventor has devised for this purpose 
will be known by considering the construction of the valve 
C and the ring in which it operates, Fig. 76, and will be, per- 
haps, the better understood by reference to an enlarged view 
of the same shown in Fig. 77, in which G is the ring which 
is attached to the head of the boiler B, Fig. 76, which ring 
is fastened, as shown in Fig. 77, by the bolts v v. 



Fig. 77 



Fig. 78. 




The valve D D D (shown in Figs. 77, 78, and 79) is 
stationary — that is, it does not turn with the boiler and the 
ring (7, heretofore referred to — and is the means by which 
steam is introduced into the boiler through the pipe e e. Fig. 
76. 

In order to prevent the escape of steam into the boiler 
above the water-line, the valve D is constructed with a solid 



214 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



piece of metal (shown at Z. Fig. 78), which prevents the 
escape of steam from any of the steam-pipes while passing 
over this valve Z into the boiler above the water-line. The 
valve D is made conical in shape, and rests in a conical seat 
in the hollow ring G. The stuffing-box c" is placed within 
the hollow journal, and is accessible from without. By 
means of the screws & c^, which work against a collar, c', on 
pipe c and a shoulder formed by the end of the stuffing-box, 
the position of valve J) in its seat can be regulated without 
stopping the rotation of the boiler. For practical operation, 
however, the pressure of the steam in the boiler against the 
head of the conical valve is sufficient to keep it tight. 

Fig. 80. 





Fig. 81 shows the form of valve which it is proposed to use 
for reducing the pressure in the revolver below what is carried 
in the steam-generating boiler of the mill or works. It is a 
simple puppet-valve, in which the upper portion of the valve 
is larger than the lower portion. This valve is kept in its 
seat by means of weights placed on the stem outside of the 
valve, as shown at s s, Figs. 75 and 76. Other devices, 
however, for regulating the pressure of steam and water for 
this and other similar purposes have been made and used 
successfully. 



REVOLVING BOILERS. 



215 



Improved Strainer for the Blow-off of Paper Stock Boilers. 

In Fig. 82 is shown a portion of an ordinary rotary boiler 
used for the treatment, under steam, of material used in the 
manufacture of paper. 



Fig. 82. 




A J., etc., are sheets of iron or steel of which the cylin- 
drical portion of the boiler is composed. jB is a head, of 
which there is one for each end of the boiler. (7 is a shaft 
or trunnion attached to the head for the purpose of providing 
suitable bearings for the support and rotation of the boiler. 
The trunnions G rest in suitable journal-boxes, and gearing 
imparts rotary motion to the boiler. The boiler is provided 
with a suitable opening for the introduction and withdrawal 
of the stock. Steam is admitted to the boiler by a suitable 
pipe passing through or connecting with a passage formed 
in the trunnion (7, and a pipe, D, attached to the boiler by 
the flange ^, provides an exit for the steam. The pipes for 
inlet and outlet of steam are provided with suitable stop- 
valves. 

In operation the boiler is partially filled with stock and 
the necessary chemicals admitted upon it, steam is turned on, 
and the boiler is revolved for the purpose of thoroughly stir- 
ring and mixing its contents while acted upon by the pressure 



216 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and heat of the steam. When this operation has been con- 
tinued a sufficient length of time, steam is shut off and the 

# 

rotary motion stopped ; but before the contents of the boiler 
can be removed, the steam, under heavy pressure, which is in 
the boiler must be released. For this purpose the blow-off 
pipe D is provided. This is brought to the top of the boiler, 
its valve opened, and the steam blown out. 

If the opening from the boiler to the blow-off pipe were 
not protected by a strainer, the out-rushing steam would 
carrv with it some of the stock. To prevent the abstraction 
and waste of stock described, the blow-off opening is always 
covered by some sort of screen or cover, as indicated by the 
dotted line at F, Fig. 82. 

This screen as ordinarily made has the form shown in 
Figs. 83 and 84. The hemispherical piece F^ with a 
■flanged edge, /, is attached to the boiler-shell A^ around the 
blow-off opening D, by rivets, as at a. Fig. 83, or by bolts 
&, Fig. 84. The spherical portion of the piece F is properly 
perforated, and as a separator of stock from the steam admi- 
rably serves its purpose. In use, however, fragments of 
stock gradually work through the perforations, and clog the 
apparatus, and it must be frequently removed for repairs. 
To remove the strainer shown in Fig. 83, the rivets a a, etc., 
must be cut, which is a laborious and expensive operation. 
To remove the piece F, in Fig. 84, a 'number of bolts must 
be taken out, and as, under the action of heat, pressure, and 
chemicals, the bolts h h, etc., are likely to be corroded in 
place, this work will usually be found to be more expensive 
for removing and replacing than in the former case. 



REVOLVING BOILERS. 217 

Mr. Benjamin F. MuUin, of Holyoke, Mass., has invented 
a strainer which he claims is readily accessible for cleaning, 




easily detachable for repairs, and firm and secure when in 
place. This strainer is shown in Figs. 85, 86, and 87. 

The strainer proper is shown at F. It is of spherical 
form, of proper size, and with suitable holes, as shown, to 
meet the conditions respecting strength and capacity ot the 
given service. At the line where the strainer F meets the 
boiler-shell A it comes to an edge (without flanging), and is 
given the form of the surface which it meets, for the pur- 
pose of forming a close connection. A row of half-holes is 
made around the edge of the strainer, as shown, for the pur- 
pose of allowing it to come to a better bearing, and also 
permitting particles of stock to blow back into the boiler 
that would otherwise collect in the corner between the 
strainer-edge and the boiler-shell. 

The strainer F as described is attached to the boiler-shell 
in the following manner: To opposite sides of F are firmly 



218 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



united heavy ears, G (7, as shown. Pabs of corresponding 
ears, H H^ etc., are securely riveted in the proper position 
on the shell J., as indicated, and heavy pins, / /, pass through 



Fis. 85. 



Fig. 86. 



Fig 




H 



K- 



O 



H 

o 
o 



.G- 







^ // 




the ears, firmly holding the parts in place, accidental dis- 
placement being prevented by the split pins K K. 

When necessary to reach the concave surface of strainer 
F^ a pin, /, is removed, F being swung back on the pin as 
a hinge, as in Fig. 87. F may be entirely separated by 
removing both pins. The relative position of the two 
hinges shown gives square resistance to the action of the 
stock when the boiler is in motion, and prevents lateral 
strains. 



treating colored rags. 219 

Treating Colored Rags. 

The course practically pursued by paper-raanufacturers in 
preparing their paper-stock for use is as follows : — 

The stock is put into the well-known form of apparatus, 
and boiled for several hours in a solution of quicklime or of 
soda-ash, or caustic soda and quicklime, for the double pur- 
pose of removing the oils or greasy matters adherent to the 
stock, and for discharging the colors. It often happens that 
the greasy matters are rendered insoluble, or the coloring- 
matters are rendered more prominent, so as seriously to 
interfere with the action of the chloride of lime, to which 
the stock is subsequently subjected for bleaching purposes. 

In discharging colors from misprints or calicoes, the mor- 
dants are usually removed by various acid baths adapted to 
the particular mordants, after which the colors can be easily 
removed by alkalies. This process, however, affects more or 
less injuriously the strength of the cloths. 

Messrs. George F. Wilson and Philip O'Reilley, of Provi- 
dence, K. I., have patented a process by which they claim 
that the mordants can be treated with chemicals in such a 
manner that a double decomposition in the bath will take 
place in contact with the colors, and the effect of this nas- 
cent action, so produced, they claim, will be to produce the 
oxidation or deoxidation of the mordants, and that the dis- 
charge of the coloring-matters may be brought about with- 
out injury to the fabrics or paper-stock so treated. 

In Fig. 88 is shown the apparatus which the inventors 



220 



THt: MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



have devised to save labor and to utilize to the utmost 
extent all of the chemicals employed. 



Fig 88. 




A represents an iron-wire basket with a strong iron frame, 
which holds the paper-stock in the several processes until it 



TREATING COLORED RAGS. 221 

is bleached and ready to be dried. This basket is sus- 
pended by a rope passing over a pulley, so that it can be 
readily raised and lowered. This pulley is suspended from 
a carrier, jB, which travels on a rail, C. Beneath this rail, 
and in a line with its length, is a series of keirs, D, E^ F, (r. 
If. The basket A can, by raising and lowering it and 
moving the carrier B, be readily transferred to any of the 
keirs. 

In connection with the keir ZT, a stirring device, /, is em- 
ployed. This is so constructed as to be raised and lowered. 
It is supported in a bearing attached to the bar or rail If, so 
as to be revolved by means of the belt or strap on the pul- 
ley L. The spindle or arbor of the stirrer passes through 
the hub of the pulley, and is free to move up and down 
therein and in its bearing ; but rotary movement independ- 
ent of the pulley is prevented by a spline-and-groove con- 
nection. 

From the upper part of the spindle of the stirrer a rope 
passes over a pulley, M, so that the stirrer may be raised, as 
shown in full lines, or lowered into the keir, as shown in 
dotted lines, as required. 

A cover is or may be employed for the keir II. It is 
made to serve as a step or bearing for the spindle of the 
stirrer, as well as to close the keir. 

The operation of preparing the stock is as follows: The 
first step is to put into the wire basket a suitable quantity — 
say five hundred pounds — of colored rags cut into small 
pieces, as is the common practice, for convenience in work- 
ing them. Into the keir D are put, for treating the weight 



222 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

of rags mentioned, five hundred gallons of water and fifteen 
pounds of caustic soda, to which is added a small quantity 
— say two gallons — of soft soap. The wire basket and rags 
are now put into the keir and boiled, preferably under 
atmospheric pressure, for about three hours, or sufficiently 
long to remove the oils and grease, which may be accom- 
plished with frequent stirring in much less time. They 
may now be transferred in the basket to keir H^ to be thor- 
oughly washed with water. In washing the stirring appa- 
ratus is employed, it being let down into the position indi- 
cated in dotted lines in the drawing. The operation is 
continued until the stock is sufficiently clean, which an 
expert paper-maker will readily determine. The keir ^ is 
now supplied with two hundred and fifty gallons of water, 
with which have been mixed five pounds of a soluble salt of 
manganese, prepared for the purpose from black oxide of 
manganese, and muriatic and sulphuric acids, as hereafter 
described. The rags having been washed are now immersed 
in this solution, where they are to remain for about three 
hours, being thoroughly agitated or stirred during this whole 
or a portion of the time. While this process is going on 
put into the keir F two hundred gallons of water having in 
solution fifteen pounds of chloride of lime, where the rags 
are thoroughly stirred and where they remain for about two 
hours. If the goods have obtained or taken on a brown 
color they may be washed thoroughly in the keir H, and 
then removed to the keir (r, in which have been put two 
hundred and fifty gallons of water and five pounds of oxalic 
acid. This is for the purpose of removing any traces of iron 



TREATING COLORED RAGS. 223 

or manganese which may be left in the rags. They are 
allowed to remain in this solution for about three hours, 
when they may be again washed in keir H^ and then thrown 
into a hydro-extractor of any ordinary or suitable construc- 
tion, which will take out nearly all the water remaining 
in them ; after which they may be dried and made ready 
for shipment. The rags coming out of this process are 
ready to be reduced to pulp in the ordinary engines. 

Should the rags not have obtained the brown color referred 
to above, they may be returned to the manganese solution 
again, and then again to the chloride-of-lime solution, as 
before. The remaining part of the processes following this 
second treatment will be the same as before described. 

Permanganate of potash could be employed for the man- 
ganese with excellent results. It would be preferable to use 
it but for economical reasons. 

The patentees state that they have obtained nearly or 
quite as good results by means of the soluble salt of manga- 
nese, before referred to, which is prepared in the following 
way : In a suitable vessel, to one pound of black oxide of 
manganese add one pound of commercial muriatic acid, or 
other quantities in approximately the same proportion can be 
used. Mix them well and let the whole remain for from 
thirty minutes to one hour, and then add two and one-half 
pounds of commercial sulphuric acid ; stir and heat the mass 
gently until the manganese is dissolved, then add about 
three gallons of water, stir it well, and leave the whole to 
settle. In charging the keir E only the clear liquor of the 
soluble salt of manganese is used. 



224 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

We have indicated the proportions in the foregoing pro- 
cess with considerable minuteness in order that the inven- 
tion can be readily carried into effect ; but it is obvious that 
these may be varied more or less. The stirring apparatus 
can, if desired, be readily constructed so as to be shifted from 
one keir to the other by supporting the bearing for the spin- 
dle of the stirrer in a travelling bracket, and making the 
elevating and lowering pulley also movable, like that which 
supports the basket. This is not, however, considered neces- 
sary, as the stirring is principally required in the washing- 
keir. 

Boiling Waste Paper. 

Waste paper can be boiled in either stationary or rotary 
boilers ; but in mills where its manufacture is made a spe- 
cialty it is commonly boiled in stationary iron tubs. 

Writing-ink can be extracted by simply boiling with water; 
but a solution of soda-ash is generally used for extracting 
printing-ink. 

The tubs used for boiling waste paper vary in size in dif- 
ferent mills, but a form of tub, very similar in design to that 
shown in Fig. 89, which has been found to give satisfaction is 
built of boiler iron and measures about eight feet in depth and 
eight feet in diameter at the bottom, and six inches wider at 
the top than at the bottom. Steam is evenly distributed to 
all parts of the tub through a false bottom perforated with 
a large number of small holes. 

In order to expedite the emptying of the tubs the false 
bottoms have attached to them three or four iron rods to the 



BOILING WASTE PAPER. 225 

tops of which iron chains are hooked and the false bottom 
and mass of boiled paper raised and deposited at any desired 
point by means of a steam hoisting engine or a crane. 

It is preferable not to pack the waste paper while in a dry 
state in the tubs, as it is liable to be imperfectly boiled owing 
to the imperfect circulation of the liquid through dry paper. 

To properly begin the boiling operation it is necessary to 
fill the tubs one-quarter full with a solution of soda-ash, 
which should then be brought to the boiling-point, when the 
papers should be thrown in and evenly distributed. 

In order to obtain an even distribution of the boiling 
liquor over the surface of the tubs an iron pipe extends from 
the centre of the false bottom to nearly the top of the tub, 
and this pipe being covered with a suitable hood distributes 
the soda-ash solution over the whole surface of the vessel. 

The iron tubs are cased with wood or covered with an 
asbestos coating to prevent the escape of the heat, and the 
top is covered with a flat iron cover in one or two pieces. 
The steam enters the tub at the side, near the real bottom, 
but rmder the false bottom ; and the liquor is drawn off 
through a pipe and valve connected directly with the bottom 
of the tub. 

In many mills the liquor is not drawn off after each boil- 
ing, the paper only being hoisted from the tub and the 
liquor strengthened by the addition of ten to twenty pounds 
of fresh soda-ash to each one hundred pounds of the paper 
to be next boiled. In proportion as the waste paper is more 
thickly covered with printing ink the more soda-ash will it 
require in the boiling operation. The period of boiUng 

15 



226 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

varies from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the 
nature and condition of the waste paper to be treated. 

The waste steam from the engine can be profitably em- 
ployed in the boiling operation, as water in becoming steam 
absorbs a large quantity of heat, which becomes latent, and 
is termed the heat of vaporization ; but this heat is again 
given out when the steam condenses to water. The latent 
heat of steam by one observer is 996.4° F., and by another 
998°. The latent heat of steam diminishes as the tempera- 
ture of the steam rises, so that equal weights of steam thrown 
into cold water will have nearly the same heating power, 
although the temperatures may vary exceedingly. This 
also appears to be below the boiling-point, so that to evapo- 
rate a given quantity of water a certain amount of heat is 
requisite at whatever temperature the evaporation is con- 
ducted. It is for this reason that distillation in vacuo at a 
low temperature effects no saving of fuel. 

The tubs which are described above will each hold about 
four thousand pounds of papers ; heavy book papers, how- 
ever, require less room than news or shavings, and the quan- 
tity which a tub will hold varies according to the class of 
waste papers to be treated. 

Treating Waste Papers so as to mahe Paper entirely 
therefrom. 

By the common process the imperfections, consisting of 
old letters, documents, newspapers, books, etc., are dusted, 
and then put into a rotary boiler, and cooked and pulped in 
an alkali solution. This operation produces a mass partly 



BOILING WASTE PAPEE. 227 

pulped and so conglomerated that the alkali cannot reach 
all of the mk. Much of the ink thus remains to form a 
constitiient part of the pulp and payjer made from it. This 
mass is then put into a washer, and the alkali and dissolved 
ink removed, after which it is beaten to the proper pulp and 
mixed with the other portions of the stock ; usually not over 
fifty per cent, of imperfections being admitted into the stock 
for new paper, the remainder of the stock being made up of 
rags, etc. 

The object of the process patented by Mr. J. T. Ryan, of 
Hamilton, Ohio, is to so treat the imperfections that a first- 
class clean paper may be made entirely therefrom. In exe- 
cuting this process first pass the imperfections through a 
duster, all thick old books being previously torn apart to 
reduce them to a few leaves. Then treat the imperfections 
to the action of hot alkali without pulping them. The 
alkali solution thus acts on the surfaces of the imperfections 
and dissolves off and carries away all the ink into the solu- 
tion. Then drain the imperfections, which are still in sheet 
form, as free from the alkali solution as convenient. Then 
place the imperfections, still in sheet form, in the washing- 
engine, and wash out the alkali solution, which leaves the 
imperfections perfectly clean. The material is then pulped 
in the beating-engine, and it is claimed can be formed into 
first-class clean paper without the addition of any new or 
expensive paper-stock. 

In executing this process use a common duster. Into a 
bucking-keir put a soda-ash solution having a density of .5° 
Baume at 160° Fahrenheit. Put in the stock, and shower 



228 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

for eight hours at a temperature of 160° F., without pulping 
the imperfections ; then lift, and drain and cleanse well in 
the washing-engine ; then pulp and form into paper. 

As the draining operation will always be imperfect, each 
charge removed will carry away some of the soda-ash solu- 
tion and leave the remainder of impaired strength. After 
each drainage, add water to make up for loss in quantity of 
solution, and add enough soda-ash solution, having a density 
of 13° Baume, to bring all the solution up to 5° Baume at 
160° F. In about eighteen working days the liquor will 
have accumulated considerable ink and other matter. Then 
blow off one-half of the liquor, and restore the quantity for 
proper working. None of the soda-ash solution is wasted, 
except such as fails to drain, and such as is blown out, as 
last mentioned. 

Boiling scrap paper in alkali, then cooling it, then boiling 
in a new solution, then beating to pulp in alkali, then wash- 
ing, etc., is an old process. 

But in the present method every care is to be taken to 
guard against pulping before the alkali is washed out. 

Other Methods of Treating Waste Papers. 

Fig. 69 shows a view of a circuit-vat in which the sizing 
of the paper and the vehicle of the ink can be quickly 
dissolved ; the temperature necessary to be maintained and 
the quantity of alkali to be employed are given in the text 
describing the construction and operation of this circuit-vat. 

In the section of Chapter X., devoted to " AVashing Waste 
Paper or ' Imperfections,' " a process is described by which 



BOILING STRAW. 229 

it is claimed that the sizing, etc., can be removed from the 
imperfections, and the fibres separated in the beater without 
breaking. 

Boiling Straw. 

MelUer^s Process for Treating Straw. 

MelUer's process for treating straw to prepare it for use 
in the manufacture of paper consists in steeping the straw 
for a few hours in hot water after it has been cut and freed 
from knots and dirt. 

The straw is then placed in a rotary boiler containing a 
weak solution of caustic alkali, and, after making it steam- 
tight, the pressure should be gradually raised to about 66 to 
70 lbs. to the square inch, at which point it should be main- 
tained for about three hours, the boiler in the meanwhile 
being made to revolve at the rate of about one or two revo- 
lutions per minute. 

The solution used by Mellier is from 2 to 3 degrees 
Baume, and in the proportion of about seventy gallons of 
such solution to each hundred weight of straw. 

In order not to dilute the caustic alkaline solution by the 
condensation of the steam it is recommended, if the boiler is 
to rotate vertically on its small axis, to cover it with a jacket 
so that the steam may circulate from one end to the other 
between the two platesj but if it is to revolve horizontally, 
or upon its long axis, there should be fixed near each end 
of the boiler and inside of it a diaphragm or partition, which 
partition should be connected by numerous tubes arranged 



230 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in a circle near the outer circumference of each partition. 
By this arrangement the steam introduced through the hol- 
low axis at one end of the boiler passes through the steam- 
pipes, and thence into the compartment at the other end of 
the boiler, where it and the condensed steam are conveyed 
away through the other hollow axis. 

By not deliverinof the steam directly into the boiler, in 
addition to not diluting the alkaline solutions, the trouble is 
saved of sometimes having the end of the steam-pipe in the 
boiler choked with straw, and there is another additional 
advantage of being able to quickly cool the boiler, after 
the pressure has been maintained for a sufficient length of 
time, by passing a stream of cold water through the jacket 
or steam-pipes. 

After the apparatus and fibres under treatment have been 
cooled in the manner described, the manhole is opened and 
the materials emptied into suitable vessels, where they are 
washed first with hot and afterwards with cold water until 
the liquor runs perfectly clear. 

The fibre is next steeped for about an hour in hot water 
acidulated with a quantity of sulphuric acid equal to about 
two per cent, of the fibres under treatment, and, finally, 
the washing is completed with cold water. 

The bleaching is then done in the ordinary way, and it is 
claimed that it can be accomplished by the employment of 
a comparatively small quantity of chloride of lime. 

This process was patented in America and also in Europe 
by Mr. M. C. Mellier, of Paris, France, the patent in the 
United States bearing date May 26, 1857. 



BOILING STRAW. 231 

Burns' s Process for Treating Straw. 

Heretofore in the art of making straw paper the straw 
has been reduced to pulp by means of beating-machines, or 
by means of a machine having a rotary cy Under carrying a 
series of cutting-knives. The objections to these machines 
are several, among which may be stated the fact that the 
fibre of the stock is sometimes completely cut to pieces, and 
that the bleaching material in solid particles is introduced 
into these machines, both of which objections, especially 
where straw-stock is used, tend to make the paper, straw- 
board, and the like extremely brittle and rotten, and conse- 
quently unsatisfactory to the trade. 

To remedy these objections Mr. Daniel H. Burns, of Day- 
ton, Ohio, has invented a process by means of which the 
stock is first cooked, then disintegrated by separating and 
tearing the fibre apart without destroying the fibre itself, 
thereby, it is claimed, allowing the fibre to retain all its albu- 
men and gluten properties. Finally the stock is subjected to 
a bleaching process without the contact therewith of any 
solid-matter bleaching material. The bleaching process, as 
conducted by Mr. Burns, is described in Chapter XI. 

Fig. 89 shows a section of the vessel used for boiling the 
straw ; Fig. 90 shows a transverse section of the disintegrat- 
ing machine, and Fig. 91 shows a face view of the stationary 
grinding disk. 

The boiler shown in Fig. 89 consists of the vessel A, hav- 
ing a suitable cover, and in which the stock is first placed to 
be cooked. It is provided with an upright perforated cen- 



232 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



tral tube, jB, having a deflecting-cap, C^ at the top, and a 
steam-pipe entering it at the bottom. The stock is placed 
arotind this pipe 5, and the steam from the steam-pipe, en- 
tering the pipe B and passing out through its perforations, 
thoroughly cooks the stock throughout. 




Fiff. 90. 



FiV 91. 





The process and manner of treating the stock when intro- 
duced into the vessel A is as follows : Twenty pounds of 
carbonate of soda are added to every one hundred gallons of 
water, which is not raised to a higher temperature than 212° 
F. at any time during the process. The straw is introduced 
when the water is cold, after which the heat is gradually 



BOIIJNG STRAW. " 233 

raised to the boiling-point. In most cases it is claimed that 
the straw is in condition to be removed from the tnb as soon 
as the boiling-point is reached. To ascertain if it be suffi- 
ciently cooked, a small sample is taken from the tub, and if 
the knots on the straw, hay, grasses, etc., can be easily 
crushed under the fingers by a slight pressure, it is ready to 
be delivered from the tub. If not, the boiling must be con- 
tinued. This is intended for stock to be bleached white. 

For stock which is to retain the natural color, or not be- 
yond a buff", there are introduced into the water ten pounds 
of extract of hemlock or oak bark to every one hundred 
gallons of water, and the same amount of carbonate of soda 
as above (twenty pounds), and dissolved. The liquid is now 
the tannate of soda. The stock is then introduced as be- 
fore, when the water is about 60° F. The tannic acid 
uniting with the gluten and albuminous properties of the 
stock imparts to it the properties of leather, the same 
as to hides or skins in tanning, which preserves it from the 
action of the water. The soda acts upon the fibre, soften- 
ing and disintegrating it, so as to make it useful for paper- 
stock. This gives to the darker colored stock, paper, straw- 
board, etc., a greater amount of tenacity and strength than 
has heretofore been obtained by any other process. 

After being cooked the stock is removed from the vessel 
in which the boiling is conducted, and is fed into the dis- 
integrating-machine. (Shown in Fig. 90.) This machine 
consists of the revolving shaft D^ driven by any suitable 
power by means of pulley E. One end of shaft E carries a 
rotary disk, F^ of peculiar construction — that is, its grinding- 



234 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

face is concaved. The grinding-disk G is of similar construc- 
tion, only it is preferably made stationary (although it may 
be made to revolve), and is also provided with the central 
feed-orifice ^, communicating with the feed-hopper H. The 
disks F and G are inclosed by a tight casing, /, provided 
with a discharge-opening, 0, for the pulp after it has been 
reduced. The shaft D has a lateral adjustment for the pur- 
pose of regulating the degree to which the pulp is to be 
reduced. This adjustment is effected by means of the ad- 
justing-screw iV working in a nut, L. The plate K^ against 
which the screw .bears, is made stationary, so as not to 
revolve; but has a lateral motion. 

e7 is a loose washer free to revolve or move laterally. 
This construction prevents all tendency of the adjusting- 
screw to tighten or loosen due to the revolution of the shaft ; 
and, further, in the event of the washer J sticking to the 
end of the shaft by heat, the washer would still be free to 
turn against the stationary plate J. 

The cooked stock is fed into the machine through hopper 
jy, the concave confronting faces of the grinding-disks admit- 
ting of an opening into which the stock may be easily passed. 
Here, by the gradually-increased rapidity of the planes of 
the disk G from the centre outward, the fibre of the stock 
is completely separated and torn apart, and the whole paper 
stock reduced to pulp, but it is claimed without destroying 
the fibre itself. This stock is now ready for use for the 
darker-colored papers. Where straw-stock is treated it will 
be seen that all the gluten and albumen matter is retained, 



BOILING STRAW. 235 

which the inventor states he has found essential in order to 
render the paper tough and homogeneous. 

Fig. 91 shows a face view of the stationary grinding-disk, 
which is represented with dressing. Different kinds ot 
dressing for the disk are required, however, according to 
the nature of the stock to be treated. 

When it is desired to have a lighter colored paper than 
results from the stock treated in the manner above described 
it is subjected to a bleaching process, which see in Chap. XI. 

The inventor of the present process states that the reason 
it has been necessary heretofore to use caustic-alkali, acids, 
and the high degree of heat is that there was no machinery 
used that would disintegrate the stock and reduce it to pulp 
wdthout being so treated, while his machine shown in Figs. 
90 and 91 is so driven, that the disk has a velocity (the 
periphery travelling at the rate of five thousand feet per 
minute) which reduces the stock wdth great rapidity to pulp 
Avithout injuring the fibre. 

Boiling Goal Tar with the AUcalies employed in Treating 

Straw. 

It has been proposed to boil coal tar with the alkalies used 
in the preparation of paper pulp from straw ; the quantity 
used being about 5 pounds of coal tar to each 1000 pounds 
of straw or other material treated, or such quantity of coal 
tar as is necessary to neutralize the quantity of alkali used. 

It is claimed that the paper made from straw thus treated 
will be much less harsh and brittle than that treated in the 
ordinary way. 



236 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Other Metlwds of Treating Straw. 

For other processes of treating straw see those of Dahl, 
Franche, and others, described in the section of the present 
chapter devoted to boiUng wood. 

The most tender straw used in the manufacture of paper 
is that of oats, next that of barley, wheat, and finally rye. 
Maize straw is even more tender than oat straw. The time 
for boiling depends on the hardness of the material, as also 
upon the pressure under which the material is boiled and 
the strength of the alkaline solution, and the preliminary 
labor which may have been bestowed on the material. 

Corn leaves and stalks are placed in a solution containing, 
for 100 pounds of material, 40 pounds of lime and 1 pound 
of potash ; the straw remains under treatment about 3 
hours. 

Oat SfraiD. — For 100 pounds of straw a solution is 
required containing 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds of pot- 
ash. Time, 3 hours. 

Bai-ley straio is first boiled for 3 hours in water and then 
brought into a solution containing, for every 100 pounds of 
straw, 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds of potash. It is then 
brought into a second solution consisting of 30 to 40 pounds 
of lime and 1 pound of potash. Time in each solution 3 
hours. 

Wheat straw is first boiled for 3 hours in water and then 
placed consecutively in 3 solutions, remaining in each for 3 
hours. The first consists of 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds 



BOILING ESPARTO. 337 

of potash, and the last two of 30 pounds of lime and 1 pound 
of potash. 

Rye straw, bemg very hard, must first be boiled in water 
for 3 hours, and then successively for the same time in four 
different alkaline solutions of the same strength as those for 
wheat straw. 

Boiling Esparto. 

The esparto after being sorted, as has been described on 
page 112, is in condition for boiling. There are various 
forms of boilers in use for the treatment of esparto ; but the 
stationary form shown in Fig. 74 is ordinarily employed in 
Great Britain. 

The grass is filled into the boiler through the door A 
(Fig. 74), which can be firmly fastened down by the screws 
shown. The steam is admitted into the boiler through the 
pipe C, which extends a short distance below the perforated 
bottom. Surrounding the steam pipe (7 is a wider pipe, 
D, open at the top, and made slightly trumpet-shaped, 
also open at the bottom below the false bottom. The false 
bottom rests on a shoulder formed on the lower portion 
of the pipe D. The liquor passes through two or more 
openings in the enlarged portion of the pipe D, and there 
is thus produced a constant circulation of the hot liquor, 
which is dispersed all over the boiler by striking against 
the hood E at the top of the pipe D. This action of 
the hot liquor striking against the dome E is techni- 
cally termed "vomiting." The liquor is run off from the 
boiler through a valve placed under the boiler, and the grass 
is removed through the door B. A safety valve is usually 



238 . THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

placed as shown in the illustration, and the chain and weights 
are intended to allow the door A to be conveniently raised 
and lowered. Just before starting to fill the boiler with 
grass the vomit is started and continued in action until the 
boiler is filled, as the grass is thereby softened, which allows 
closer packing in the boiler. . 

The form of boiler described cannot be used with very 
high pressure steam, as in such cases it requires slight modi- 
fications. 

Much experience and care are necessary in boiling esparto, 
for if the material should be insufficiently boiled there results 
a loss of soda in the operation of reboiling thereby entailed, 
and then the result is often not satisfactory when a repeti- 
tion of the boiling is made necessary. 

The quality of the grass, the form of boiler, the pressure, 
etc., determine the quantity of caustic soda to be used. When 
a shipment of esparto is received at the mill, experiments 
should be made to find the least quantity of caustic soda 
necessary to properly boil that especial lot, and the quantity 
found necessary should be continued until the whole con- 
signment is used. 

Dunbar states : " AVhen the necessary precautions are taken 
to have everything in proper order and condition, the under- 
noted quantities of caustic soda will generally boil the various 
espartos in a satisfactory manner : — 

Fine Spanish esparto, boiled with 28 lbs. caustic soda (70 per cent.) per cwt. 

Medium Spanish " " 24 " " " " 

Fine Oran ■ " " 30 " " " " , 

Medium Oran " " 28 " " " " 

Fine Susa " " 28 " " " 

Tripoli " " .32 " " " 

Tripoli " " 25 " " " " 



BOILING MANILLA AND JUTE. 239 

All boiled for ten hours in stationary vomiting boilers with 
ten pounds steam pressure, care being taken to see that the 
esparto is sufficiently boiled before the liquor is run off." 

When the boiling of the esparto is completed, the steam 
is shut off, the lid lifted, and the liquor conducted to a large 
store-well. The esparto is then washed by running water 
into the boiler, fastening down the lid and turning on the 
steam. After a short time the steam is again shut off and 
the new liquor is also run into the store-well. 

The door B is then opened and the esparto removed from 
the boiler, and if it is not to be used in fine grades of paper 
is carried directly to the breaking engine ; but when a high 
degree of purity is desired the grass is first carried to the 
" wet-picking" department of the mill, where girls and women 
overhaul it and pick out all the unboiled portions. 

For other methods of boiling esparto see the processes of 
Dahl and Franche, described in this chapter. 

Boiling Manilla and Jute. 

Both manilla and jute may be boiled in either rotaries or 
open tubs, but in either case a liberal use of milk of lime 
will be necessary. From 15 to 30 pounds of lime per 100 
pounds of material is the usual proportion ; but this is 
largely exceeded by some manufacturers, who sometimes 
employ as much as 40 or nO pounds of lime for 100 pounds 
of jute. 

,_■ Treated by steam and water at a high temperature (248° 
to 266° F.) jute fibre is completely destroyed, and is then 



240 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

converted into soluble compounds. The same result occurs 
when heated with acetate of soda. In this case acetic acid 
distils over, thus showing that jute is decomposed, and gives 
rise to the formation of acids. Even a small quantity of 
bisulphite prevents this decomposition. This, according to 
Mr. Cross, is due to the known combination of this salt 
with the aldehydes formed by the action of oxidizing agents 
on jute. 

CoTileifs Process for BoUlng and Bleaching Jute. 

As a preliminary step to carrying out the following pro- 
cess, which is the invention of Mr. Edward Conley, of Cin- 
cinnati, O., first assort, clean, and cut up the jute or jute- 
butts in the usual way. Then put them into a close vessel, 
either stationary or revolving. To every one hundred pounds 
of jute are added sixty gallons of caustic alkali of a strength 
of 7° Baume, at a temperature of 130° F. Then boil for 
about ten hours under a standard pressure of eighty pounds. 
The boiling completed, the spent liquor is drawn oflF, and 
the stock thoroughly washed with hot water, which keeps 
the thick vegetable matter in solution, and carries off the 
black and non-fibrous substances. 

Preparatory to being bleached it is washed in an ordinary 
rag-engine in the usual way, after which it is preferable to 
run it through a wet-machine, which extracts from it a large 
amount of water, and leaves it in a better condition to 
absorb the bleaching liquor. 

When jute^bagging, burlaps, or gunny-bagging are used, 
the quantity of caustic alkali may be less by ten gallons. 



BOILING MANILLA AND JUTE. 241 

The strength and quantity of caustic alkali, the pressure, 
and the time given above are the standards, but their equi- 
valents may be used. For example, 7° Baume at 130° F. 
has been named, but 8° Baume at 100° F. is equivalent. 

In this process there are two points of prime importance : 
First, boiling in alkali as strong as can be made caustic. It 
would be preferable to use alkali of a strength of from 9° to 
10° Baume, if it were practicable to make pure caustic at 
that strength. Alkali, of any greater strength than 7° or 
8° Baume, cannot be made thoroughly caustic except by 
evaporation. Second, a combination of a caustic liquor of a 
high strength and a medium pressure. 

The advantages claimed to be gained by this process are 
as follows: First, the disintegration of the stock is effected 
by the single process above described. Second, this disinte- 
gration being thorough, the cellulose is left of a light brown 
color, and in its natural state short, with uneven ends, which 
is the best condition to be worked into paper. Third, 
another consequence of this thorough disintegration is, that 
all foreign matters, as silica, gluten, etc., are easily separated 
from the pulp, leaving pure cellulose. Fourth, owing to the 
absence of all foreign matters, paper made from pure cellu- 
lose dries out regularly when wet down for printing. This 
gives to the sheet an even surface, which enables it to pass 
smoothly through the press, and receive a clear and distinct 
impression. It is also opaque, and, when printed upon, does 
not permit the ink to show through from one side to the 
other. Moreover, pure cellulose is easily bleached, only a 
comparatively small amount of chemicals being required, 

16 



242 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and; therefore, the paper made from it is not only of the 
highest grade of color, but also stronger than when the pulp 
is subjected to a more intense chemical action. 

The cellulose obtained by this process is not chemically 
pure, but practically its purity is claimed to be sufficient to 
produce all the results claimed for clear cellulose. 

It has been the practice to work jute into low grades of 
white paper, and in small quantities. When treated by this 
process, it is claimed that it can be made into the finest grades 
of paper, either when used alone or mixed with other stock. 

Mr. Conley is not the first person to use jute in the manu- 
facture of white paper, so called. It has been experimented 
upon by many persons and in many ways, such as boiling 
in lime, boiling in soda-ash, giving it an acid bath, etc.; but 
by none of such processes, however, has cellulose of the 
desired quality been produced. 

Boiling Wood. 

Chemically- Prepared Wood-Pulp. 

During the past twenty years special efi'orts have been 
made with a view to dissolving the intercellular in crusting 
or cementing matter existing between the fibres of wood, so 
that the resulting cellulose might be introduced into fine 
papers, and latterly with considerable success. 

In the earlier processes patented in England by Sinclair, 
in 1854, and Houghton, in 1857, wood was boiled with 
about twenty per cent, of real caustic soda under a pressure 
of from ten to fourteen atmospheres. Experience has die- 



BOILIXG WOOD. 243 

tated certain improvements in some of the details of these 
earlier methods by which so-called chemical wood-pulp is 
manufactured very largely on the continent of Europe from 
whence it is imported into England to a considerable extent ; 
and in the United States also the preparation of cellulose 
from wood is receiving much attention. 

It is possible to obtain a pulp of good quality suitable for 
some classes of paper, by boiling the chipped wood with 
caustic soda in the manner indicated; but when it is desired 
to use the pulp so prepared for papers having a perfectly 
white surface, it has been demonstrated in practice that the 
action of the caustic soda solution at the high temperature 
which the required pressure develops results to a certain 
degree in a weakening and browning of the fibres, and dur- 
ing the past five years much labor has been expended in the 
endeavor to overcome the objections named. 

The outcome of these efforts has been a number of 
patents, having for their object to prevent oxidation and 
subsequent weakening of the fibres from taking place in the 
chemical preparation of wood-pulp. Bisulphite of lime is 
one of the chemical agents used to prevent oxidation and 
subsequent degradation of the fibres in the processes 
patented by Messrs. Mitscherlich and Francke, and bisul- 
phite of magnesia is one of the agents used for the same 
purpose in the processes of Messrs. Ekman and Graham. 

Although a common principle runs through all these 
methods of preparing cellulose from w^ood, they differ 
materially in detail, as to construction of the digesters em- 
ployed, methods of treating the wood stock before boiling it 



244 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in the sulphurous-acid solution and also as regards pressure, 
blowing off of the sulphurous acid gas, etc., but all these 
processes present a striking similarity to the method patented 
by Tilghmann in 1867. 

The process patented by Dr. Mitscherlich, of Mlinden, 
Prussia, has been quite extensively adopted in Germany. 
The chemical changes which take place during the boiling 
process in Dr. Mitscherlich's method of preparing cellulose 
from wood may be explained as follows: — 

The sulphurous acid is oxidized by combining with a part 
of the oxygen of the cellulose and of the organic substances, 
and formed into sulphuric acid, that under normal circum- 
stances combines with the bases that have before been 
united with the sulphurous acid. When the process is 
not properly conducted, free acid is formed in the solu- 
tion, wl^ich exerts an injurious influence upon the fibres. 
Besides the free acid and its combination, the incrusted sub- 
stances are formed into compound combinations of tannic 
acid and its by-products, which are highly objectionable. 
For the proper carrying out of the boiling process it is an 
essential condition that the sulphurous-acid solution be free 
from polythionic salts, as by the action of such salts a brown- 
ish-black deposit is formed on the wood stock, during the 
boiling, so that it remains hard and causes a failure of the 
boiling operation. At the same time a considerable increase 
of temperature takes place, so that the tests taken from the 
boiler show an abnormally quick decrease in the proportion 
of sulphurous acid in the solution. These polythionic acids 
are generated commonly by the presence of free sulphur- 



BOILING WOOD. 245 

fumes during the roasting process. To prevent their pre- 
sence care has to be taken that sulphurous acid free from 
such acid and salt is obtained and used. 

The great objection to the modern chemical processes of 
preparing pulp from wood is that, as they commonly depend 
on the use of bisulphite, which, being an acid salt, cannot 
be worked in an iron boiler, great difficulty has been en- 
countered in practice in maintaining the lead lining of the 
digester in proper repair. It is probable, however, that this 
difficulty will be surmounted with further experience. In 
Dr. Mitscherlich's apparatus a thin lead lining is cemented 
to the inner surface of the boiler by a cement composed of 
common tar and pitch, and the lead lining is then faced with 
glazed porcelain bricks. The objection to this method is 
that in case of leakage or rupture in the brick facing and 
lead lining the pulp is liable to become injured by the tarry 
product. Messrs. Hitter and Kellner propose to unite the 
iron shell of the boiler and its lead lining by means of an 
interposed soft metal alloy fusible at a temperature lower 
than that of either. It is claimed that the shell and lining 
are thus securely united, while the alloy being fusible under 
the normal working temperature of the digester the lead 
lining can slide freely on the boiler shell. The objection 
to this method is that it is difficult to localize the creeping 
or sliding effect of the lead lining into adequately small por- 
tions to make the metal sufficiently durable for digesters, 
but this objection the same inventors claim to have overcome 
by a later invention. For other methods of securing the 
lead lining to the boiler shell, see the list of patents at the 
close of this section. 



2J:6 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

All the acid processes for obtaining cellulose from wood 
are open to the objection that the cellulose so obtained con- 
tains a considerable quantity of incrusting matter which is 
allowed to remain in the fibre, thus giving a harsh character 
to the paper manufactured solely from it, and another objec- 
tion is its great transparency. In order to obtain a pure cel- 
lulose it is necessary to exhaust it in an alkaline solution 
subsequent to the treatment with acid. 

The white woods and pines are commonly used in the 
manufacture of " chemical wood pulp." "The white woods, 
such as bass-wood, and the different varieties of poplar, are 
easily managed; the 'popple' or white poplar and the aspen 
are the least difficult to reduce, next comes the bass-wood, 
then the yellow poplar, but the quantity of the fibre obtained 
from each is inverse to this, as the yellow poplar gives the 
best and longest fibre, then the aspen, and lastly the ' pop- 
ple.' The pines give a long fibre of considerable strength, 
but a smaller quantity per cord, and require severe treatment 
to make it white. The treatment which the diff'erent kinds 
and varieties of wood require is alike except in degree, and 
the following descriptions of boiling with soda will conse- 
quently answer for all." Marshall's boiler in which the 
wood chips can be digested with soda will also be described. 

Boiling until Soda. 

A method of cutting the wood into chips has been de- 
scribed on page 145 . From the Paper Trade Journal we 
take the following description : The rotary boiler is gene- 
rally considered preferable, and it is usually made of three- 



BOILING WOOD. 247 

quarter inch iron, and measures about seven feet in diameter 
and twenty-tAvo feet in length, with wliole wrought-iron 
heads. Heavy cast-iron hollow trunions are riveted on each 
head. The digester is provided with a steam coil of 2J 
inch pipe aggregating about 700 feet in length ; the steam 
is admitted and the water of condensation is discharo:ed 
through the hollow journal at the same end. There is a 
short coil of 2| inch pipe perforated with holes Jg of an 
inch in diameter, and located inside of the digester between 
the manholes, and connected through the shell with a blow- 
off valve on the outside. There is located on the opposite 
side, also inside of the digester, a perforated pipe which ex- 
tends the wdiole length and is connected through the other 
hollow journal with a force-pump of large capacity. The 
chips are filled into the digester through the manholes, and 
after the digester is packed full, 2800 gallons of soda solu- 
tion at 9° Baume are run in ; the manheads are then put in, 
the steam is turned on, and the digester is started. As long 
as a solid stream of the water of condensation flows from the 
discharge pipe it is allowed to run, but when the steam 
comes, it must be connected with a steam trap of sufficient 
capacity to discharge all of the water as rapidly as it is 
formed. The steam pressure is allowed to rise to 115 pounds 
by the gauge, and maintained at that point for five hours, 
at the end of which time the steam is shut off, and the diges- 
ter stopped with the manheads at the lowest point. A blow- 
off pipe, which extends from under the digester to the spent 
liquor tanks in the evaporator room, is now connected by a 
flange joint to the blow-off valve, which is located between 



248 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the manheads, and which connects with the perforated coil 
inside. The blow-off valve is opened a little at a time, to 
prevent the liquor from being blown out with too great vio- 
lence. The valve may be opened a little more and more as 
the pressure decreases. At this point one of two courses 
may be pursued : First, all of the liquor may be blown out, 
thus securing the largest possible quantity of spent liquor of 
full strength for evaporating, and this will be found to be 
about two-thirds of the original quantity that was put into 
the digester. When this is obtained the blow-oif valve is 
closed and the force-pump which connects with the perfo- 
rated pipe inside of the digester is started and hot weak 
liquor is pumped in. While this is being done the blow-off 
pipe is disconnected, and when a sufficient quantity of weak 
liquor is forced into the digester, the digester is started and 
allowed to make a few revolutions. It is then stopped and 
the blow-off pipe is again attached, and the liquor which 
has been pumped in is blown out. Care must be taken to 
maintain the necessary pressure by keeping sufficient steam 
on the coil to accomplish this. When this is done, the 
force-pump is again started and a quantity of warm water is 
pumped in ; the blow-off pipe is again disconnected, and the 
digester is allowed to make a few revolutions. It is then 
stopped with the manheads at the top, and after the man- 
heads are taken out, the digester is rotated half way, and 
the contents of the digester are emptied into a tank located 
underneath. This tank is provided with a perforated false 
bottom of sheet-iron, the holes ^^ of an inch in diameter. 
The liquid is allowed to drain off into a cistern, and is saved 



BOILING WOOD. 249 

to be used for the first wash. The second course that may 
be pursued is to blow about one-half of the liquor out 
of the digester, then start the force-pump in the hot weak 
liquor while the blowing off goes on. As soon as a sufficient 
quantity is obtained for evaporation the blow-off valve is 
closed, but the pumping is continued until there is sufficient 
water in the digester to give the fibre a first wash. It is 
then stopped, and the digester is rotated a little and emptied. 
Time is saved by pursuing the second course, but there is a 
loss of soda, and the pulp is not so thoroughly washed as in 
the first instance. 

Dahl's Process of producing Cellulose from Wood, Straw, Esparto, or 
other Vegetable Matters, by boiling them under pressure in a hydrated 
solution containing Sulphate of Soda, Carbonate of Soda, Soda Hy- 
drate, and Sodium Sulphide. 

The process of Mr. Carl F. Dahl, of Dantzic, Germany, 
is applicable to the manufacture of cellulose from wood, 
straw, esparto, and other vegetable substances. 

For the purpose of dissolving the cellular substance or 
fibrous mass out of the bodies incrusting them the commi- 
nuted wood, straw, esparto, and the like are boiled under 
pressure in wrought-iron vessels free from lead lining, con- 
taining a hydrated solution in which are contained sodium 
salts, partly in the form of sulphate of soda, carbonate of 
soda, soda hydrate, and sulphide of sodium. Two hundred 
and tvi^enty pounds avoirdupois of half-dried pine wood 
require about fifty-seven pounds of the above-named salts 
in solution ; straw and esparto, about twenty-two to twenty- 
seven pounds. Pine or fir wood requires five to ten atmos- 



250 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

pheres overpressure, the strength of the sodium solution 
being 6° to 14° Baume, the time of the boiling varying from 
thirty to four hours. Esparto requires two to five atmospheres 
overpressure, the strength of the sodium solution being 5° 
to 8° Baume, and duration of boiling eight to three hours. 
By the boiling process the incrustations combine with the 
sodium solutions ; the cellular matter, it is claimed, remains 
uninjured of a loose consistency. After the boiling is 
completed, the brownish-black lye is blown off into iron 
basins for the purpose of afterward recovering the sodium 
salts. The remaining cell matter is washed with warm 
water in the boiler or other suitable receptacle, and is then 
manufactured into paper-pulp, in the well-known way. by 
means of a Hollander or pulp-engine, and bleached with a 
solution of chloride of lime. The color of the unbleached 
mass is yellowish-gray; that of the bleached mass pure white 
or slightly yellowish, according to the degree of bleaching. 

Sulphate of soda serves for the production of the sodium 
solution. The sulphate dissolved in water is boiled with 
about twenty to thirty per cent, of burnt lime. The lye 
thus prepared is already serviceable for boiling ; but it 
receives its proper composition by the addition of the salts 
regained from the sulphate solution after the boiling process. 
The lye, after being used, is forced into an evaporating-oven 
for the purpose of regaining the salts, is strongly calcined, 
and after thus being deprived of gas is drawn from the oven 
as a cake-like mass, washed, and the resulting solution used 
for the preparation of fresh lye. 



BOILING WOOD. 251 

For obtaining pure salts without the admixture of carbon, 
the thickened lye is drawn from the evaporating-oven and is 
fused in a calcining-oven at a dark-red heat. The fused 
mass, after cooling, assumes a reddish-brown color, is readily 
soluble in water, and has approximately the following com- 
position : sixteen per cent, sulphate of soda, fifty per cent, 
carbonate of soda, twenty per cent, sodium sulphide, four 
per cent, diverse non-essential matters. This composition is 
very variable, according to the properties of the boiled 
matter, but without influencing the dissolving power of the 
solution afterward prepared therefrom. The salt which is 
regained should be dissolved as soon as possible, or guarded 
against the influence of atmospheric air. By the process of 
boiling and regaining, about ten to fifteen per cent, of the 
salts in the solution is lost. In general practice the losses 
are replaced in the preparation of the lye by sulphate of 
soda. For the solution are taken eighty-five per cent, of 
regained salt and fifteen per cent, of sulphate, which mix- 
ture, boiled with twenty to twenty-three per cent, of burnt 
lime, yields the proper lye. With ten per cent, of loss a 
clear watery solution is taken for the lye, in which are con- 
tained one hundred and ninety-eight pounds of regained 
salt. Twenty-two pounds of sulphate are added, and the 
solution, in which are contained two hundred and twenty 
pounds of salts in the already-named proportion, is boiled 
with forty-four pounds of burnt lime. If the loss amounts 
to fifteen per cent., then thirty-three pounds of sulphate and 
one hundred and eighty-seven pounds of regained salt are 
taken, the whole being boiled with fifty pounds of lime. In 



252 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the case of twenty per cent, loss, one hundred and seventy-six 
pounds of regained salt and forty-four pounds of sulphate are 
taken for the solution, and are boiled together with fifty-two 
pounds of lime. If twenty-five per cent, of sulphate is to be 
added, one hundred and sixty-five pounds of regained salts, 
fifty-five pounds of sulphate, and sixty-one pounds of burnt 
lime are taken for the solution. 

In regular operation the utmost limit of sulphate addi- 
tion should be thirty per cent., one hundred and fifty-four 
pounds of regained salts, sixty-six pounds of sulphate, and 
seventy pounds of burnt lime. The proportion of salts, con- 
tained in the boiling solution is, on an average, thirty-seven 
per cent, sulphate of soda, eight per cent, carbonate of soda, 
twenty-four per cent, soda hydrate, twenty-eight per cent, 
sodium sulphide, three per cent, diverse combinations. This 
composition is very varying according to the qualities of the 
materials to be boiled. 

The transfer from the soda hydrate treatment to the de- 
scribed treatment with sulphate is accomplished in the pre- 
paration of the lye by replacing the loss of soda hydrate by 
the sulphate, instead of by soda, and then, with the disap- 
pearance of the hydrate, gradually reducing the addition of 
lime during the boiling of the solution from forty-five per 
cent, to about from twenty to twenty-three per cent. 

Defects of Boilers for Digesting Wood hy the Soda Process. 

The manufacture of wood-pulp by the chemical ' process 
has, from its invention down to the present time, been at- 
tended by very disagreeable and expensive features. It is a 



BOILING WOOD. 253 

well-known fact that all wood-pulp digesters, of whatever 
description, leak more or less when a certain pressure has 
been attained. Generally, when the steam pressure has 
reached sixty pounds per square inch, the digester begins 
to leak. Then as the pressure is increased to one hundred 
or more pounds the leakage is increased. It frequently 
happens that as much as one-fourth or one-third of all the 
boiling liquors in the digester are lost in this manner, and 
necessitates charging the digester with an excess of alka- 
line liquor. The leakage is forced out through the riveted 
seams of the digester in the form of a fine spray and 
charges the surrounding atmosphere with an exceedingly 
offensive and suffocating vapor, which is unhealthy and in- 
jurious to the men working in the vicinity, who are obliged 
to inhale some portions of it. It frequently happens that 
the leakage is so great as to prevent the disintegration of 
the wood, thereby causing the total loss of the charge. 
Various methods of riveting digesters have been adopted. 
Plates have been planed to a true surface at the laps of the 
seams. Rivets have been even screwed in through the laps 
and headed cold. Digesters have been made of steel in 
order to have a close-grained surface at the seams. But 
none of these various methods have proved successful in pre- 
venting the leakage ; and it is a well-known fact that wood 
digesters can be operated but a few weeks without recalking 
and replacing rivets, and the utmost care and skill of the 
boiler-maker have failed to produce digesters that will not leak 
at or through the seams. The filling and discharging of the 



254 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

digester two or three times daily, thus exposing it to tem- 
peratures varying from 150° to 320° F., produces expansion 
and contraction sufficient to cause the iron or steel plates to 
"creep" at the seams, and thus wear away the calking. 
When the pressure in the digester has reached a certain point, 
it opens the seams sufficiently to allow the escape of the very 
volatile liquor composed of the caustic alkali and other pro- 
ducts generated in the process of the disintegration of the 
wood. Even in the pulping of wood plain, without chemicals, 
the escape of the pinic, pyroligneous, and other acids is annoy- 
ing and injurious. By the invention shown in Fig. 92, Mr. 
George E. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass., claims to have 
overcome all these difficulties, and he states that he has con- 
structed and successfully operated for months wood digesters 
that are perfectly tight, not leaking at all, and, therefore, he 
claims the honor of having changed the manufacture of 
chemical wood pulp from the most disagreeable, offensive, 
and wasteful process known in the whole art of paper-making 
to a pleasant, safe, and economical system, always producing 
sure results, and worked with more ease and comfort than 
the ordinary process of boiling rag stock. 

MarslialVs Boiler for Digesting Wood hy the Soda Process. 

Fig. 92 represents Marshall's stationary upright wood- 
digester with its appurtenances. 

J, the digester, is six feet in diameter, and sixteen feet 
long, made from half-inch iron or steel boiler-plates — all 
seams double riveted. 



BOILING WOOD. 



255 



Fig. 92. 




B^ the outer shell or jacket, is six feet and eight inches in 
diameter, and connected to the digester. A, at a distance of 



256 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

from eight to twelve inches below the top. The upper end 
of jacket B is drawn into a diameter two inches greater 
than the diameter of the digester ^4, for the purpose of 
placing the digester within the jacket. 

A wrought-iron ring, one inch thick by four or five wide, 
and made in sections, fills the space between the ends of the 
jacket and the digester, and two rows of rivets are put 
through the jacket-ring and the digester. Four screws, P, 
one and one-eighth inch in diameter, are put through the 
lower end of the jacket with a re-enforcing plate to assist in 
supporting the weight of the digester. 

The jacket B should be covered with felting, asbestos, or 
some other non-conducting substance, to preserve a uniformity 
of temperature and to prevent undue condensation in cold 
weather. It is also connected with the digester by suitable 
stay bolts to guard against the explosion of the one or the 
collapse of the other. 

The digester is provided with the usual perforated false 
bottom, E^ extending acro'ss at a height from ten to twelve 
inches from the bottom of the digester. 

C is a gate operated by a rod passing up through the 
digester, with a hand-wheel and screw at the top, shutting 
over the end of the blow-off pipe i), and is used to prevent 
the wood from entering the pipe leading to the blow-off valve 
at D while the wood is being treated. The blow-off valve 
at D is used to discharge the contents of the digester, and is 
connected to a heavy eight-inch wrought-iron pipe passing 
through a stufRng-bdx in the jacket B^ and screwed into a 



BOILING WOOD. 257 

heavy wrought-iron ring riveted inside of the digester, as 
shown in the drawing. 

6^ is a two-inch iron pipe connecting the top and bottom 
of the digester, and is used while the steam-pressure is being 
raised to conduct the liquor from ,the bottom to the top of 
the digester for the purpose of removing any pulp that may 
have passed through the perforated false bottom, it being 
important to keep the space under the false bottom clear 
of fibre. The pressure is greater at the bottom of the 
digester than at the top until the full pressm-e required is 
attained. The opening of the valve in the pipe G will cause the 
liquor to circulate from the bottom to the top of the digester, 
carrying with it any fibre remaining in the liquor. This 
pipe may also be used to circulate the hot liquor from the 
bottom to the top of the digester while the pressure is being 
raised. 

i^ is a two-inch pipe extending upward from near the top 
of the jacket, having an arm extending across and down 
into the top of the digester, and contains a pressure-valve, P, 
for the purpose of regulating the steam-pressure in the space 
between the jacket and the digester, and for relieving the 
pressure on the outside of the digester when its contents are 
being discharged through the blow-off valve i), insuring the 
digester from the danger of collapsing from outside strain by 
pressure in the jacket. This pressure-valve P is controlled 
by weights, which can be regulated according to the indi- 
cations of the steam-gauges K K, one of which connects 
with the jacket and the other with the disgester. 

The steam for treating the stock in the digester is admitted 
17 



258 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

through a pipe, H^ directly to the alkaline liquor, all attempts 
to treat the stock by the heat of the steam within the jacket 
proving insufficient, it not penetrating to the centre of the 
digester, and leaving a core of "uncooked" wood in the 
middle. 

/is an inch-and-a-half pipe for conveying steam into the 
space between the jacket and the digester, for the purpose 
of maintaining a pressure equal to or greater than the pres- 
sure within the digester, thus balancing the pressure inside 
the digester with an outside pressure, and thereby preventing 
leakage of liquor through the seams of the digester. 

X is a safety-valve. 

M is a manhole. 

iVis a check-valve. 

is a hot-water pipe to be turned into the manhole for 
washing out the digester with the hot water obtained by the 
condensation of the steam in the jacket, which is a great 
convenience over the former way of washing the digester 
with cold water. 

Soda Eecovery. 

Fig. 93 shows a sectional elevation and plan of a Forrion 
oven, the various parts being indicated by the following letters: 
D, grate. (7, oven where the incineration takes place. H^ 
conduit which brings the hot air from the furnace. A, 
evaporator with its paddles. B^ large flue. 

The liquor is conveyed to the Forrion evaporating and 
incinerating oven, which diff"ers from an ordinary reverberatory 



SODA RECOVERY. 



259 



oven in its being provided with paddle-agitators which pro- 
ject the Hquid, making it come down in sprays; this increases 
the surfaces coming in contact with the hot air and the 
smoke current traversing the oven. The expense of fuel is 
greatly reduced by this method. 

Fiff. 93. 




The residue is in combustion when it comes from the 
oven ; and is disposed in a pile so that it may burn slowly. 
The combustion terminated, the carbonates are rendered 
caustic like those for the trade ; they contain at an average 
42 per cent, of anhydrous soda. Two-thirds of the soda 
used are thus recovered, the lost third being mostly retained 
by the lime, notwithstanding whatever care might be taken 
in the washing. 



260 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The economical regeneration of the carbonate of sodium 
by means of the evaporation and the incineration of the 
black liquors produced by the soda treatment of straw, wood, 
etc., have been a progress of the highest importance in these 
industries. 

Acid or Bisulphite Processes of Treating Wood. 

Graham^ s Method of treating Wood and other Fibrous Substances for the 
froduction of Fibre, for Paper-making, etc., by the Injection of Sul- 
phurous Acid, either alone or in combination with PotasJi, Soda, Mag- 
nesia, Lime, or other suitable Base in the form, of a Solution contain- 
ing an excess of Acid, into a closed or open Vessel or Digester daring 
the operation of Boiling. 

The process of Mr. James A. Graham, of London, Eng- 
land, which we will now^ describe, relates to the treatment of 
wood and such other fibrous substances as are capable of 
producing fibres suitable for paper-making, and other pur- 
poses when boiled or steeped in a solution of sulphurous 
acid, or a sulphite or bisulphite of soda, potash, magnesia, 
lime, or other suitable base and water. The operation is 
preferably conducted in a closed boiler protected by a lead 
lining or otherwise from the action of the chemicals used, 
and fitted with a valve which can be opened, so as to allow 
the gases and volatile hydrocarbons contained naturally 
within and around the fibres (either in chemical combination 
or mechanical adhesion therewith) to escape. 

AVe will first explain the manner of carrying out Graham's 
invention in a closed boiler. 

In carrying out the process there is a constant loss of sul- 
phurous acid gas going on, and consequently a continual 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 261 

weakening of the solution employed, in order to avoid which 
it is preferable to employ the monosulphite of potash, soda, 
magnesia, lime, or other suitable base and water. Either of 
these substances, or a suitable combination of them, and 
water are placed in the boiler with the fibrous substances to 
be treated, and the temperature raised to or above boiling- 
point. After the hydrocarbons, air, and gases natural to 
the fibrous substances have been driven out by the heat and 
allowed to escape there is pumped or injected into the vessel 
or boiler sulphurous acid, either in its gaseous or liquid state, 
or in combination with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other 
suitable base and water, or a solution of sulphurous acid. 
There is thus formins^ in the closed boiler a solution contain- 
ing an excess of sulphurous acid above that required to form, 
in combination with the base, a monosulphite. The opera- 
tion of injecting sulphurous acid or its combinations with 
potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base, as above 
described, may be repeated from time to time during the 
boiling, so as fully to maintain, and, if necessary, increase, 
the strength and efficiency of the chemical solution employed. 

According to this mode of treatment a saving of the chemi- 
cal employed is claimed to be effected, as little or no sulphur- 
ous acid gas is lost during the time the gaseous hydrocarbons, 
air, and other gaseous or volatile matters are being driven 
out of the fibrous materials. 

It will be readily understood that in the case where there 
is employed an open vessel or boiler the operation will natur- 
ally be carried on at the temperature of the boiling-point of 
the solution employed ; but the mode of keeping such solu- 



262 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tion at a fairly uniform strength, or, if necessary, increas- 
ing its strength, will be substantially the same as that 
above described when using a closed vessel or boiler, in 
which latter case the operation may be carried on either 
at or above the boiling-point of the solution. When using 
an open boiler, it is evident that the excess of sulphurous 
acid supplied during the boiling will be constantly given off 
in a gaseous state from the surface of the liquid, and must 
consequently be replaced by further injections, while the 
acid given off can be led away and condensed, so as to en- 
able it to be again used, if desired. In cases where the vege- 
table substances are boiled with water alone, or in conjunc- 
tion "with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base 
in the form of an oxide or an acid sulphite, the injection of 
sulphurous acid or its combinations with potash, soda, mag- 
nesia, lime, or other suitable base during the boiling will 
be equally beneficial. The inventor prefers to inject the 
sulphurous acid, or its combinations, as above described, 
into the vessel or boiler at the bottom, and to cause it 
to come in contact with the solution therein, before reach- 
ing the fibrous material. For this purpose there is formed 
a kind of chamber beneath the boiler, and separated there- 
from by a perforated disk or diaphragm of lead or other 
suitable material capable of resisting the action of the solu- 
tion, so as to allow the latter to fill the chamber. To this 
chamber a pipe is connected, through which the sulphurous 
acid, or a combination of it with a suitable base, as described, 
is forced or injected by any suitable apparatus. 

It will, of course, be necessary to coat with lead the inte- 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 263 

rior of the vessel or boiler and the parts with which the 
sulphurous acid or its combinations described come in con- 
tact. 

MitscJierlicli's Processes of Preparing Cellulose from Wood. 

In the process patented September 5, 1882, by Dr. A. 
Mitscherlich, of Miinden, Germany, cellulose is obtained as 
a by-product in the manufacture of tannic acid. 

In carrying out this invention the wood is freed of bark 
and cut into pieces of convenient size for handling without 
removing the knots and small limbs. These pieces of wood 
are placed in a boiler which has an interior lining of lead, 
and which is provided with heating-tubes and with other 
accessories required for the induction and eduction of steam, 
etc. As soon as the boiler is charged with wood the diges- 
ter is hermetically closed and the wood treated with steam 
and then with the aqueous solution of bisulphite of lime, 
according to the size of the wood, at a temperature of 226° 
F,, for a certain length of time, preferably for somewhat 
more than eight hours. By the action of the steam and 
bisulphite of lime upon the wood all the soluble substances 
which surround and permeate the fibres of the wood are dis- 
solved, while the cellulose remains as a soft mass in the 
liquid. The contents of the boiler are raised to boiling- 
heat, which is maintained for such a length of time as the 
vapors which are conducted off to the tower or shaft em- 
ployed continue to have a strong smell of sulphurous acid. 
Instead of conducting the vapors into the tower or shaft, 
they may also be conveyed to a tank containing slaked 



264 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

lime (milk of lime). A concentrated solution of bisulphite 
of lime is obtained in the tank, which is extensively used in 
the trades for preventing the formation of acetic acid in solu- 
tions while in the process of fermentation. If in place of 
the slaked lime, carbonate of soda or other salts are placed 
in the tank, the different sulphites can thus be readily pro- 
duced. The solution remaining in the boiler is then run off 
and separated from the cellulose. It contains, besides salts 
of lime (sulphate of lime, etc.), essentially tannic acid, also 
adhesive substances, acetic acid, and a small quantity of 
sulphurous acid, which latter is retained in the solution. 

The solution can be utilized, first, as a new tanning mate- 
rial ; secondly, for the manufacture of adhesive substances ; 
and, thirdly, for the manufacture of vinegar. 

The insoluble residue in the boiler consists of cellulose 
with the knotty parts of the wood, which knots are not 
changed by the boiling process while in the boiler, owing 
to their greater consistency. The fibres, knots, together 
with particles of bark, are finally removed from the boiler. 

The white or nearly white cellulose is obtained by the 
above process in considerably larger quantity than was sup- 
posed to be obtainable from the wood. For instance, from 
air-dried spruce it is claimed that over sixty-six per cent, of 
dry cellulose can be obtained. This cellulose may be utilized, 
either directly or by bleaching Avith chloride of lime, in the 
manufacture of paper, and in case of longer fibres, even in 
the manufacture of textile fabrics. 

Dr. Mitscherlich's invention, patented May 4, 1883, has 
reference to certain improvements in the apparatus for and the 
method of making cellulose, whereby it is claimed a perfectly 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 265 

white and tough cellulose is ohtained at a considerably re- 
duced cost, to be used as a substitute for the best rags, in 
the manufacture of paper. 

The invention consists, first, of certain improvements in 
the apparatus for boiling the wood with the sulphurous-acid 
solution, and, secondly, of a method of treating the wood 
stock by first steaming the stock, so as to expel the air from 
the pores, then boiling it with the siilphurous-acid solution, 
first at a temperature of about 226° F., which is gradually 
raised to about 244° F., and finally lowered until the sul- 
phurous acid is entirely driven off. 



Fig. 94. 



Fio;. 95. 




Fig. 94 represents a vertical central section of a part of a 
boiler for the wood stock and the sulphurous-acid solution. 
Fig. 95 is a detailed vertical transverse section, showing the 



266 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



connection of the steam-heating pipes with the wall of the 
boiler. Fig. 96 is a vertical longitudinal section of a device 
for testing the contents and indicating the temperature ; and 
Figs. 97 and 98 are respectively vertical and transverse sections 
of a stamp for disintegrating the boiled wood stock. 



Fig. 99. 




The wood stock employed for making cellulose is boiled 
in an iron vessel or boiler of cylindrical shape, which is 
provided with interior protective layers of special construc- 
tion, by which the corrosive influence of the acid on the iron 
walls is claimed to be prevented. 

The boiler A is made of a very large size, preferably 
about twelve feet in diameter and thirty-six feet in length, 
so that large quantities of wood stock can be treated therein. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 267 

The interior surface of the boiler A is covered with a thin 
layer, a, of sheet-lead, which is applied at any ordinary tem- 
perature to the iron walls upon a layer of cement composed 
of common tar and pitch. This cement is heated and the lead 
placed thereon and rubbed down smoothly. 

The lead lining should not be too thick, as in that case 
it cannot be made to adhere properly to the upper part of 
the boiler-wall, nor can it be properly worked into the differ- 
ent indentations of the iron. A too thick lead lining would 
form air-spaces between it and the boiler-wall, which would 
weaken the lining at that point, and would destroy large 
portions of the boiler-wall by the action of the acid in case 
of a leak. The boiler would thereby become unfit for use 
and some of the iron dissolved, whereby the contents would 
be discolored and otherwise injuriously affected. 

By carefully cementing the thin lead lining to the inner 
surface of the boiler the expensive soldering on of the lead 
lining, which had heretofore to be resorted to, is done away 
with, and thereby it is claimed a more efficient boiler lining 
obtained, by which the security and durability of the boiler 
are claimed to be considerably increased. 

The manholes h of the boiler, which serve for the intro- 
duction of the wood stock as well as for the removal of the 
product obtained therefrom, are closed by suitable lids and 
are covered, besides the interior layer a, with a second layer, 
a', of sheet-lead, which is cemented in the same manner over 
the manhole and extended to some distance from the man- 
hole over the interior surface of the boiler. A third layer, 
rt'\ of sheet-lead is next applied over the second layer a', and 



268 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

extended from the manhole and over the adjoinmg part of 
the boiler, a thick layer, a\ of cement being interposed 
between it and the second layer a'. These different 
layers of lead are required at the manholes, as the lead 
lining a at that point is not protected by the glazed por- 
celain bricks c?, which cover the interior surface of the 
boiler, as shown in Fig. 94. As soon as the innermost 
covering a^ shows signs of wear it is renewed, and thereby 
the interior surface of the manhole is fully protected. 

The contents of the boiler are heated by coils of lead 
pipes, which extend from the bottom to about half the height 
of the boiler. Several parallel systems of lead coils are 
preferably used, so that in case of leakage one or the other 
coil can be shut off and the boiling operation continued with 
the remaining coils. For the heating-pipes an alloy of lead 
and antimony is used, as this resists in a higher degree than 
pure lead the action of the mechanical and chemical agencies 
to which the pipes are exposed. The lead coils are connected 
with the steam-boiler at one end, and at the other end with 
condensing-chambers, through which at high pressure the 
water of condensation is forced out. These features are not 
shown in the drawings but they are mentioned, as thereby 
temperatures considerably above 212° F. can be readily 
obtained. 

The lead pipes are connected to the boiler-wall by the 
coupling shown in detail in Fig. 95. A cast-iron sleeve, B^ 
which is flanged at one end and threaded at its exterior sur- 
face, is inserted through an openmg in the boiler-wall to the 
interior of the boiler, until the interior flange B' abuts 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 269 

against the wall of the boiler, between which and the flange 
a lead lining, e, is interposed. A screw-nut, e', is screwed 
over the outer threaded shank of the sleeve B tightly against 
the boiler-wall. A second flanged nut, e^, is screwed over the 
end of the outer sleeve -B, its flange pressing tightly on a 
lead or asbestus ring, i, and forcing it against the beveled end 
of the sleeve 5, as shown clearly in Fig. 95. The sleeve B 
is covered at its inside by a lead lining, /. which is screwed by 
its threaded thicker end /' to the flange B'. By this con- 
struction a very reliable steam-tight coupling of the heating- 
pipe and boiler is obtained, which is capable of resisting the 
acid in the boiler. The boiler is next provided with a 
device for testing the contents of the digester and for readily 
observing the temperature and pressure. These objects 
are combined in one attachment (shown in Fig. 96), so 
that only one opening has to be made through the boiler- 
wall. The device consists of a fixed tubular socket, ^, which 
is firmly secured by a threaded portion and exterior screw- 
nut, g', to the boiler-wall. A thermometer tube, g\ passes 
centrally through the socket-tube (/, and is protected by a 
metal sleeve, ^'^ betAveen which latter and the tubular socket 
/ sufficient space is left for drawing off a small portion of 
the contents of the boiler through a suitable valve, g'^. A 
thermometer, g'\ is applied to the upwardly-bent outer end 
of the pipe g"". Besides the thermometer g'" and test- valve g'^^ 
a pressure-gauge may be arranged, and also a gauge for 
indicating the level of the solution in the boiler. After 
the wood has been treated for the proper length of time 
in the boiler the stock is remoA-ed and passed through a 



270 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

stamp-battery, which has for its object to separate the fibres of 
the cellulose from each other, as well- as '"to wash out the 
substances incrusting them. This separating and wash- 
ing apparatus is shown in Figs. 97 and 98, and consists of a 
number of inclined stamps, A, that are successively actuated 
by the cams It^ of the revolving cylinder «', which cams 
engage projections, Zr^, on the shanks of the stamps. The 
stamps 7i li> move up and down in a trough, D^ having a 
longitudinally-inclined bottom, so as not only to separate the 
fibres of the wood stock from each other by repeated blows 
thereon, but also to separate the softer parts of the stock 
from the harder parts — such as knots — which latter Avould 
otherwise be broken up by the stamps, and would dete- 
riorate the pulp. To prevent the breaking of the knots the 
stamps li are not allowed to touch the bottom of the trough, 
and are also guided at some distance from the inclined 
side walls of the trougli, as shown in Fig. 97. By this 
arrangement the stamps exert a pressing and rubbing action 
on the mass without breaking up the knots. The boiled 
wood stock is introduced in the trough at the lower point, 
and the water at the highest point of the trough, so that they 
pass in counter-directions to each other in the trough. The 
stamps are dropped alternately in such a manner that the 
mass is moved in an upward direction over the inclined body 
of the trough. In this manner the proper separating and 
washing of the fibres is obtained without injuring them, 
as with each blow of the stamp the water is pressed out of 
the fibres directly affected by the blow, which quickly again 
absorb the moisture, and so on throughout the stamping 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 271 

operation. After the stock is thus properly broken up and 
washed it is bleached and treated in the usual manner, so 
as to bring it into proper marketable form. 

Operation. — To boil the wood stock the following process 
is employed : The wood is cleared of bark, cut into small 
pieces, and charged in a proper quantity into the boiler. It 
is then steamed in the digester, which steaming, however, 
has to be carefully watched, as on it depends, in a high 
degree, the success of the subsequent boiling. The object of 
the steaming is not to prepare the stock for the chemical 
action of the acid solution, but to drive out the atmospheric 
air from the pores of the wood, and give easy access of the 
solution into the cells of the wood. In this manner not only 
a more rapid chemical action upon the wood stock takes 
place, but also, owing to the increased absorption of the 
solution into the stock, a larger quantity of wood can 
be charged and treated in the boiler, as the space is 
more advantageously utilized, and thereby the output of 
the boiler is considerably increased. The steaming is con- 
tinued for a greater or less length of time, according to 
the condition of the wood. If the wood is freshly cut and 
.moist, the atmospheric air is expelled therefrom in a com- 
paratively short time ; but if it is dry and hard a longer 
exposure to the steam is necessary. The expulsion of 
the air is further accelerated by the cold acid solution 
when admitted into the boiler, which causes the quick 
condensation of the steam and reduces thereby the pressure 
in the boiler. Care has to be taken that the temperature 
during the steaming process does not rise above 212° F., as 



272 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

practical tests have proved that at a higher temperature the 
steaming of the wood does not take place in so perfect a 
manner. This steaming of the wood stock at this stage is 
entirely different from steaming of the wood before it 
is ground up, as in the latter case a chemical change is 
effected and a brownish color imparted to the stock. After 
the wood has been properly steamed the boiler is supplied 
with the sulphurous-acid solution. The quantity of organic 
substances to be worked up has to be in proportion to the 
degree of concentration of the sulphurous-acid solution, which 
varies and is dependent upon certain conditions connected 
with the preparation of the solution. If the proper proportion 
between the organic substances and the sulphurous-acid 
solution is not established, and, for instance, an insufficient 
quantity of organic substances be present, then insoluble 
salts are deposited in the fibres, which can be washed out 
only with difficulty. For instance, when bisulphite of lime 
is used in the solution, sulphite of lime may be formed, which 
is only soluble with difficulty. If such fibres be worked 
into pulp, it would produce so-called " knots" in the paper. 
Furthermore, in bleaching such fibres with chloride of lime 
much larger quantities of chlorine would be required, so 
that the expense of the bleaching process is considerably in- 
creased. If, however, a too great quantity of organic sub- 
stances is present in the acid solution, the product does not 
become sufficiently soft or " opened." The proper propor- 
tions have to be determined by a series of tests, which are 
made by drawing off from time to time small quantities of 
the contents through the testing-tube described on page 269. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 273 

During the boiling process it is necessary to carefully ob- 
serve the temperature as well as the duration of the boiling. 
The first stage consists in the slow and gradual chemical 
action of the solution on the wood, so that that part which 
has been absorbed by the stock can be replaced. This takes 
place best at a temperature not exceeding 226° F. After 
this a quick reaction at a temperature which is gradually 
increased to about 244° F. has to be produced. Special care 
is necessary toward the end of the reaction, as this has to 
go hand in hand with the driving off of the sulphurous acid. 
By the driving off of the sulphurous-acid solution the chemi- 
cal action is gradually retarded in the same manner as 
by lowering the temperature. By properly observing the 
different stages of the process, by taking small test quantities 
from time to time from the boiler and mixing them with 
suitable reagents, the quantity of active solution still present 
can be readily determined. If, for instance, bisulphite of 
lime is used, and the testing-solution is mixed with ammonia 
and the precipitate carefully observed, by the ammonia or 
similar chemical substances a part of the sulphurous acid is 
retained in solution, while the sulphite of lime in the acid 
solution is precipitated. The salts which are formed in the 
due course of the process are not precipitated. From the 
precipitate the proportion of the effective solution can be 
readily determined. When the precipitate is only equal to 
one-sixteenth of the volume of testing-solution the proper 
time has arrived when the driving off of the sulphurous-acid 
solution has to be commenced. As the solution passes off 

with the steam forced into the boiler, the temperature is low- 
is 



274 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

ered to about 223° F., whereby also a decrease of pressure 
is obtained. If the precipitate in the testing-tube is only 
one thirty-second part of the testing-solution, the process is 
fully completed, and the solution has to be quickly drawn off. 
A still smaller precipitate will prove that the process has 
gone too far, and that no further organic substances are pre- 
sent, in which case free acid, probably sulphuric acid, would 
be formed that would impart an injurious brownish color to 
the organic mass. 

To carry on this process with such a certainty through 
the different stages and temperatures described, which are 
of considerable importance, a boiler of large dimensions, 
with the different accessories described, is of special advan- 
tage. By a higher temperature the boiling process may be 
accelerated ; but there would also result a higher pressure, 
and the cellulose obtained thereby would not only be inferior 
in quality, but also in toughness and quantity. 

The chemical change which takes place during the boil- 
ing process has already been described. 

Franche^s Process of Manufacturing Paper-Pulp from 
Wood, Esjjarto, Straw, etc. 

The invention of Mr. David O. Francke, of Ivorndal 
Molndal, Sweden, relates to the manufacture of wood-pulp 
from wood, esparto, wheat, maize, or other straw, or from 
other suitable vegetable fibre. For this purpose Mr. 
Francke prepares a solvent, which is the acid sulphite of an 
alkaline earth or of an alkali — that is to say, a solution of 
such sulphite with an excess of sulphurous acid. As the 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 275 

cheapest and most accessible base, the inventor prefers lime. 
It has long been known that a solution of sulphite of lime 
combined with free sulphurous acid will at a high tempera- 
ture tend to dissolve the undesirable portions of vegetable 
structures, and leave the fibres in a tit condition for paper 
manufacture. Mr. Francke, after prolonged and careful ex- 
periments on a large scale, claims to have determined the 
conditions for effecting this with rapidity, and so as to preserve 
the strength of the resulting fibres and attain a practical 
and successful method of manufacturing paper-pulp by this 
means. He employs only a moderate strength of the solu- 
tion with a high temperature and gentle but constant 
mechanical agitation. Mr. Francke has devised a method 
of producing the acid sulphite in large quantities at small 
cost, and supplying it at a temperature nearly up to 
that required with agitation for its most effective use. 
He charges a tower or column with fragments of lime- 
stone, which he keeps wetted by a shower of water, and 
passes through the tower sulphurous-acid fumes produced 
by burning sulphur or by roasting or calcining sulphides, 
such as pyrites. The liquid which collects at the bottom of 
the tower is the solvent required which should have a 
strength of 4° to 5° Baume. It is not essential that the 
limestone should be pure, as mineral containing a propor- 
tion of magnesia, or of other alkaline earth or mineral — such 
as witherite — will answer well ; also, minerals consisting, 
principally, of magnesia or of alkaline earths other than 
lime may be employed, their treatment being the same as 
for limestone. The soluble alkalies, soda and potassa, may 



276 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

also be used when their greater cost is not objectionable. 
For these alkalies the treatment has to be modified as fol- 
lows : The tower or column is charged with fragments of 
inert porous material — such as coke or bricks or porous 
stone — and these are kept wetted by a shower of a solution 
of the caustic alkali, which solution should have a strength 
of 1° to 2° Baume, while the sulphurous-acid fumes are 
passed through the tower. In like manner the carbonates 
of soda or potassa may be treated ; but when they are em- 
ployed the solution showered on the porous material should 
be stronger than that of the caustic alkali, so that it may 
contain approximately the same amount of actual alkali. 
Whatever be the alkaline base employed, the liquid col- 
lected at the bottom of the tower, having, as stated above, a 
strength of 4° or 5° Baume, and being the acid sulphite of 
the base, -or a solution of the sulphite with excess of sul- 
phurous acid, is the solvent which Mr. Francke employs for 
the manufacture of pulp, as we will now describe: When 
wood is the material to be treated for pulping, it is freed as 
much as possible from resinous knots by boring or cutting 
them out, and is then cut, by preference, obliquely into chips 
or fragments, which may be from one-quarter to three-quar- 
ters of an inch thick. When esparto, straw, or analogous 
fibre is to be treated, it is cut or chopped into fragments. 
The fibrous material is charged, along with the solvent, into 
a strong vessel or boiler, which is heated by a steam casing 
or coil or by steam-tubes, the steam employed being at a 
pressure of four to five atmospheres, and consequently capa- 
ble of raising the solution to the temperature of about 300° 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 277 

Fahrenheit. As agitation greatly promotes the pulping 
action, Mr. Francke employs a vessel or boiler of cylindrical 
form, which is caused to revolve while its charge is under 
treatment. Such a vessel is conveniently made with a 
steam-jacket at each end, connected by longitudinal tubes, 
the steam being supplied through its trunnions, the steam 
entering through one end, and the water of condensation 
being removed through the other. 



Fioj. 99. 



Ficr. 100. 





Fis. 101. 




Figs. 99, 100, and 101 show one means by which Mr. 
Francke, can carry out his process. 



278 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Figure 99 is a central vertical section through the tower 
and its contents employed for the production of the solvent. 
Fig. 100 is a longitudinal section through the vessel in which 
the pulp is treated, and Fig. 101 is a cross-section of the 
same. 

J. is a tower loosely filled with irregular lumps, a, of car- 
bonate of lime (ordinary limestone), supported on a grate, B. 

^ is a tilting distributing-vessel, to which water is sup- 
plied through a pipe, D, from an elevated tank, (7, kept 
filled by a pump or other suitable means, and allowed to 
trickle down over the surfaces of the limestone below. There 
is a furnace (not represented) in which iron or copper pyrites 
are roasted, the sulphurous-acid fumes therefrom being led 
through the flue F into the base of the tower A and allowed 
to move upward through the interstices between the pieces 
of limestone «, such portion of the fumes as are not absorbed 
escaping freely at the top. The sulphurous acid is absorbed 
by the water, which, becoming acid, attacks the carbonate of 
lime, setting free the carbonic acid and combining with the 
lime, forming sulphite of lime. The conditions are such 
that just a sufficient quantity of free acid will remain in the 
solution, which will accumulate in the tank G at the bottom, 
and ultimately flow out through the pipe H into any suit- 
able retaining-reservoir. (Not shown.) 

/ represents anti-friction supporting-rollers mounted in 
fixed bearings. If is a cylindrical vessel resting thereon, 
and revolved slowly by a screw, L, operated by gears driven 
by a steam-engine or other suitable power through a belt, K. 
The vessel ilf has tubes, m, communicating between chambers. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 279 

M HP, in the ends thereof. Steam at a pressure of four or 
five atmospheres is supplied from a boiler (not represented) 
through a tightly-packed swivelling connection, J", at one 
end, and the water of condensation, with a small quantity of 
the steam, is allowed to escape at the other end, controlled 
by a suitable valve. (Not represented.) The acid sulphite 
thus cheaply formed is pumped or otherwise supplied into 
the vessel 31 in such quantities that, with the wood, straw, 
or other material also inserted, the vessel shall be about 
three-quarters full. Then the orifice through which it is 
charged and removed being tightly closed by a suitable cover 
and secured, so as to allow a considerable pressure within, 
the vessel J/, with its contents, is rotated by the gearing, 
making, preferably, one revolution in about ten minutes. 
The solution is received warm, and the steam in the pipes m 
rapidly raises it to a temperature of about 300° F., with the 
corresponding pressure. The rotation of the vessel gives an 
efficient but moderate agitation. The proportion of solvent 
required varies according to the character of the material 
treated. Mr. Francke states that he found that from two 
thousand to twenty-five hundred gallons of the solvent would 
generally suffice for the production of one ton of wood pulp. 
For esparto, straw, and the like, the quantity of solvent may 
be somewhat less ; but the best proportions are soon learned 
by experience. The material, having thus in presence of the 
solvent been subjected to heat and pressure with agitation 
from twelve to fifteen hours, is withdrawn from the vessel, 
and, being well washed with water, is in the condition of pulp 



280 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



which is ready for paper-making, but which, when great 
whiteness is required, may be bleached hke ordinary pulp. 

Figs. 102 to 105 show a later form of boiler invented by 
Mr. Francke. 



Fig. 102. 




Fig. 102 is a side elevation of the boiler. Fig. 103 is a 
longitudinal section of portions of the boiler on a larger 
scale. Fig. 104 is a corresponding transverse section. Fig. 
105 is a partial section and elevation of a detail. It is on a 



still larger scale. 



The outer shell, B^ of the boiler is of steel, made in several 
distinct lengths or sections (indicated by additional marks, 
as B' B^), each united to the next by what is sometimes called 
a "jump-joint," that is to say, the edge of one section abuts 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 281 



directly against the edge of an adjacent section, and both 
sections are . secured by riveting, brazing, welding, or other 




Fitr. 105. 




efficient means to an inclosing-ring B*, of such width as to 
lap sufficiently upon each section. The inner shell, M^ is of 
thick lead, applied in distinct lengths or sections (indicated 
by additional marks, as M' ]\P, etc.), united along their 
several edges. The boiler is mainly cylindrical, but the 
ends are partially spheroidal, terminating in trunnions (not 
represented), which are hollow and equipped with suitable 
stuffing-boxes and steam-pipe connections leading from one 
or more boilers (not shown), which supply steam at a high 
pressure. 

D' D'^ are perforated pipes extending from the trunnions 
inward to points near the centre of the boiler, where their 
ends are each nearly closed by a perforated plate. These 
pipes allow the steam received through the trunnions to be 
introduced directly into the contents of the boiler. 

Manholes, e, properly re-enforced and equipped with 



282 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

strongly-secured covers, allow a man to enter the boiler, when 
reqmred, to effect repairs ; but Mr. Francke claims that his 
present invention reduces the liability of the lead to require 
examination, and in case of failure at any point directs the 
workman to the point requiring attention. The lead need not 
be pure. Ordinary lead of commerce will suffice. It is prefer- 
able that the lead shell have a thickness of about one-quarter 
of an inch. From some cause, probably the difference in 
expansion and contraction between the lead shell and the 
outer shell, the lead shell is likely to fail after a period. One 
steel shell will outlast many lead shells. When it is 
required to change the lead shell, it is cut out and removed 
through the manholes or trunnions without difficulty. The 
introduction of the new shell requires some care, but it can 
be effected by rolling up the new lead and introducing it 
through the manholes and carefully unrolling and fitting it 
to its place and joining the edges. Between the lead If and 
the steel 5 is a thin space. The steel shell affords the 
requisite strength for the entire structure, and the lead 
shell alone comes in contact with the contents of the boiler. 
As heretofore worked, the lead lining of boilers is liable to 
failure by cracking so minutely as to be difficult of detection, 
but a small quantity of fluid leaking from the interior of the 
boiler into the space between the head lining and the steel 
causes great mischief. When the inner lead boiler is made, 
air will remain between the lead and the steel. When the 
solution at a high temperature fills the lead boiler, this air 
expands and after one or two operations breaks the lead M. 
To avoid this Mr. Francke provides a great number of small 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 283 

orifices, &, through the steel plate, to connect with the space 
between the lead and steel boilers, which orifices let out the 
expanded air as soon as the heat rises inside the lead boilers, 
instead of breaking the lead. The orifices h serve a double 
purpose. Sooner or later the lead boiler must commence 
to give way by cracking. This cracking commences so 
minutely that it is difficult to detect, and the solution or fluid 
which escapes through these minute cracks would in a short 
time consume the steel. Steam penetrates more easily through 
these cracks than the solution. Consequently when a crack 
in the lead under the rotation is turned upward, which part 
of the boiler is empty, the nearest orifice gives or throws out 
escaping steam, and when turned down shows small drops of 
solution, in the latter part of the operation, mixed with the 
dissolved parts of the wood By close observation of the 
orifices, when steam from inside the lead has shown itself, 
there is no difficulty in fixing the whereabouts of the crack 
within a narrow space. If the steam is from the inside of 
the lead boiler, it smells of the solution. This it does not do 
if the escape depends on moisture or air between lead and steel. 
G are internal bracing-rings, made each in two pieces, 
and held distended by wedges, H^ introduced at the joints. 
These bracing-rings and wedges are made of a composition — 
as brass — that will be unaffected by the solution, and which 
will have a greater expansion and contraction than iron. 
Care is taken to envelop each bracing-ring with a thick 
covering of lead. These internal bracing-rings are arranged 
about three feet apart. They press outwardly with sufficient 
force to support the weight of the upper portion of the lead 



284 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

shell when the structure is empty and cold, and press it 
firmly against the interior of the iron or steel shell when 
it is filled and hot. 

The apparatus will serve best when the lead shell is made 
in a continuous band extending quite around the interior of 
the boiler, and of the proper width to reach from one of the 
internal braces, (r, to the next. 

The wedges H^ which distend the internal braces G^ may 
be made of considerable length, and, after being driven to 
set the braces tightly out against the inner face of the lead, 
their ends should be smoothly cut off by any suitable cutting- 
instrument. It is important to leave no recesses to form a 
lodgment for the pulp, as a retention and reboiling of the 
pulp injures its color, and on mixing it with the next 
batch will injure the whole. 

The steam-pipes D' D^ are supported by brackets, i)*, 
extending inward from the internal braces G. The latter, 
being made in sections, can be easily removed through the 
manholes and new ones introduced and brought to the 
proper positions when required. 

Those portions of the outer steel shell 5, which run upon 
the supporting-rollers G are thickened by the addition of 
re-enforcing material on the exterior. Mr. Francke states 
that in his experiments he has used boilers having a length 
of forty feet with a diameter of seven feet. Such a boiler 
complete and fully charged weighs about forty tons. He 
re-enforces successfully at the supporting-point by rings, i?**, 
of cast-iron, made each in a single piece and centered exactly 
on the boiler by means of wedges, ^***. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 285 

Each of the orifices, 5, is provided with a stopcock, V . 
Under ordinary conditions these cocks, &', are all open and 
each is ready to discharge any fluid, whether hot air, steam, 
or solution, which may seek to issue through the orifice &, 
which it controls. 

/is a sample-cock controlling an orifice, z*, made at a con- 
venient point in the boiler, and through which small quanti- 
ties of the contents of the boiler may be drawn from time to 
time to examine its condition. The surfaces of the cock 1 
which are exposed to the solution are lead. The orifice I is 
re-enforced by a bushing of lead, J, having a head on the 
inner face and one on the outer face. The cock is secured 
by bolts tapped in holes in the steel shell B. 

Operation. — As the boiler is rotated by mechanism (not 
shown), the contents of the boiler are gently agitated. The 
proper valves (not shown) being operated, steam at a suffi- 
cient pressure is allowed to flow inward through the pipes 
D' D^. These pipes agitate the contents of the boiler by 
being traversed through the same as the boiler slowly re- 
volves, and deliver steam through orifices distributed along 
their whole length. Thus the heat is delivered in the form 
of steam, mingling directly with the contents of the boiler 
and imparting all its caloric thereto, rapidly raising the tem- 
perature of the boiler until it very nearly corresponds to 
that of the steam-pressure employed. The transfer of heat 
from the steam to the contents of the boiler results in the 
production of considerable quantities of water due to the 
condensation of the steam. This water becomes added to 
the contents of the boiler. It is therefore important at the 



286 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

commencement that the solution be strong, though not 
stronger than 4|° to 5° Baume, and not of sufficient quan- 
tity to fill the boiler. As the work proceeds, the water, 
added by the condensation of the steam, increases the volume 
and weakens the strength of the fluid contents of the boiler. 
At the close of the operation the boiler will be nearly full. 
The solution— the acid sulphite of lime — is produced, as has 
been explained on page 275, by causing sulphurous acid- 
fumes to pass up through a tower containing carbonate of 
lime kept wetted with water. The sulphurous fumes are 
absorbed by the water, making the water acidulous, which 
then attacks the lime, and in trickling down the tower ob- 
tains nearly its equivalent of alkali, leaving just a sufficient 
excess of the acid. This gives the desired acid sulphite of 
lime for the proper treatment of the woody matter in the 
boiler. 

By the ordinary methods of treating wood with acid sul- 
phite a large quantity of sulphate forms and remains attached 
to the fibres of the pulp, which sulphate is practically inso- 
luble, and, adhering to the fibres, remains in the pulp. All 
known methods of extracting it tend to darken the pulp and 
make it more difficult to bleach. Mr. Francke is not con- 
fident as to the precise chemical reactions occurring, but he 
claims to have discovered that the absence of highly-heated 
surfaces reduces the evil. The formation of the sulphate and 
its disposition upon the fibres depends, probably, on a high 
temperature throughout the solution ; such as is required to 
effect the heating by metallic surfaces. Mr. Francke's 
method of heating by direct steam avoids the necessity for 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 287 

any particles of the material under treatment being heated 
much above, the mean temperature of the solution. The 
steam-pipes are liberally perforated, and allow a perfectly 
free discharge of the steam. The apparatus, by thus avoid- 
ing the presence of any siu'faces much hotter than the solu- 
tion, produces, it is claimed, a pulp having, when dried, not 
more than one per cent, of sulphate. 

Lead is of such a nature that even with the care taken in 
the present instance to give it expansion and contraction it 
is still shorter lived than the steel. AVhen a flaw occurs in 
any portion of the lead lining of sufficient magnitude to 
induce a visible escape of steam from the nearest stopcock, 
&', the attendant marks that stopcock and then closes all 
the stopcocks, thus preventing any serious loss of the con- 
tents. As soon thereafter as practicable, a workman enters 
the boiler and, knowing by the marked stopcock what part 
of the lead shell is defective, solders or otherwise repairs the 
defect, introducing a new sheet of lead if required. 

We have in Figs. 100 and 101 described a boiler having a 
portion of each end occupied as steam space with tubes con- 
necting such spaces, and in which steam flowed from one 
chamber to another. Such apparatus imparted the heat of 
the steam to the contents of the boiler only through the 
medium of the metal of the tubes and of the tube-sheets. 
A portion of the steam was necessarily allowed to escape at 
the opposite end of the boiler from that through which it 
was received, in order to maintain the presence of steam on 
all the surfaces. Mr. Francke's present invention, by intro- 
ducing the steam directly, imparts the heat of the steam 



288 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

fully and effects the heating more rapidly and with less 
consumption of steam. It also economizes room by dispens- 
ing with the considerable steam-spaces at each end and by 
dispensing with a large proportion of the tube-spaces. It 
also (and to this the inventor attaches the most importance) 
conveys the heat to the solution directly without being 
transmitted through metal. It thus avoids the presentation 
to the pulp of any surfaces materially hotter than itself 

It will be understood that the wood or analogous material 
to be treated, previously made quite fine by mechanical 
means, is introduced into the boiler with the solution, so as 
to fill the boiler about two-thirds full, and then it is heated 
by the direct application of steam to about 300° F., or some- 
what more or less, and rotated slowly from ten to fifteen 
hours, as described on page 279. After being discharged from 
the boiler, the dissolved material may be removed by wash- 
ing in a common rag-engine. The pulp may then be either 
made into paper directly by any ordinary or suitable process, 
or it may be dried and stored or transported to distant 
points. 

The paper-pulp produced in the present boiler is claimed 
to be not only relatively free from gypsum, but easily 
bleached, and even without bleaching, it is said to be of a 
very light color. It is claimed that it may be used without 
bleaching for many purposes requiring white or nearly 
white paper. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 289 

Some of the Defects of tlie Acid or Bisulphite Processes of 

Treating Wood. 

In the acid treatment of wood for the purpose of convert- 
ing the fibres into pulp for use in the manufacture of paper 
the general practice has been to use alkaline solutions of soda, 
combined in various proportions with certain acids — such, 
for instance, as sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid, etc. 
These solutions have been heated in digesting-vessels, and 
the high temperature resulting from this process of heating 
developing a pressure of from six to seven atmospheres, the 
wood being disintegrated by the action of the boiling solution. 
The gum, resinous constituents, and other incrustating or 
cementing substances that bind the fibres together are 
decomposed, destroyed, or dissolved, while the pure cellu- 
lose, which constitutes the essential elements of the ligneous 
fibres, is separated therefrom. To this end high tempera- 
tures had to be employed, otherwise the disintegration was 
found to be only partial, the wood remaining in a condition 
unfit for further treatment. The high temperature not un- 
frequently converts a large proportion of the resinous and 
gummy constituents of the wood into tar and pitch — that is 
to say, carbonaceous bodies that penetrate into the fibre and 
render its bleaching difficult, laborious, and costly, while the 
frequent washing and lixiviation necessary to bleach such 
products seriously affect the strength of the fibre, its white- 
ness, and also materially reduce the percentage of the pro- 
duct in some instances as much as eighteen per cent. These 
difficulties and detrimental results necessarily materially 

19 



290 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

enhance the cost of production, while the fibre itself suiFers 
considerably in strength from the repeated action of the 
chloride of lime employed in the process of bleaching. 

The difficulties are due chiefly to the carbonization of 
certain constituent parts of the fibres under temperatures 
exceeding 212° F., such carbonized constituents being insolu- 
ble and incapable of being bleached, and as they permeate 
the fibres cannot be entirely removed. 

. To overcome these difficulties, the wood should be chemi- 
cally treated at a temperature sufficiently low to insure that 
in the solution and decomposition of the cementing sub- 
stances of the fibres the carbon will remain chemically 
combined with other elements — such as the hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen — in order to obtain an increased 
product of superior quality, and render the process more 
economical. 

Pictet and Brelaz's Process of treating Wood for conversion into Paper- 
Pulp, which consists in Jirst subjecting the same to the action of a 
Vacuum and to that of a sursaturated Solution of Sulphurous Acid at 
a temperature not exceeding 212° F. 

The process invented by Mr. Raul P. Pictet, of Geneva, 
and Mr. George L. Brelaz, of Lausanne, Switzerland, con- 
sists, essentially, in tlie use of sursaturated solutions of sul- 
phurous acid — say from i to ^ lb. avoirdupois of sulphurous 
acid to a quart of water — employed under a pressure of 
from three to six atmospheres, and at a temperature not 
exceeding 212° F. Under these conditions the cementing 
substances of the wood fibre retain their chemical character 
without a trace of decomposition of a nature to show carboni- 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 291 

zation, while the liquor completely permeates the wood and 
dissolves out all the cementing constituents that envelop 
the fibres. 

In carrying into practice the process invented by Messrs. 
Pictet and Brelaz the wood is cut into small blocks, as usual, 
and charged into a digesting-vessel of such strength as will 
resist the necessary pressure, and of any desired or usual 
form and material — as, for instance, of iron or steel lined 
with lead. Water is then admitted to the vessel, and after- 
ward the sulphurous acid from a suitable receiver, in which 
it is stored in a liquid form, until the proportion of acid has 
reached that above indicated — namely, from one hundred to 
one hundred and fifty quarts of acid to one thousand quarts 
of water. The volume of the bath will be determined by 
the absorbing capacity of the wood, and is preferably so 
regulated as not to materially exceed that capacity. 

In practice it is preferable to form a partial vacuum in 
the digesting-vessel, whereby the pores of the wood are 
opened, when it will be in a condition to more readily absorb 
the solution, thereby accelerating the process of disintegra- 
tion. When disintegration has resulted, which generally 
occurs in from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the 
nature of the wood treated, the liquor, which is usually not 
quite spent in one operation, is transferred to another diges- 
ter, a sufficient quantity of water and acid being added to 
complete the change. 

In order to remove the liquor absorbed by the wood, the 
latter is compressed, the digester being connected with a 
gas-receiver, into which the free gas escapes, and in which it 



292 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

is collected for use again in the operation of disintegration. 
The bath is heated and kept at a temperature of from 177° 
to 194° F. by means of a coil in the digester supplied with 
steam from a suitable generator. The wood, after disinte- 
gration, undergoes the usual treatment for converting it into 
paper-pulp, which may thus be readily bleached by means 
of chloride of lime. 

The unaltered by-products contained in the bath may be 
recovered and treated for use in various branches of the arts 
by well-known methods and means. 

MarshalVs Boiler for Treating Wood for Paper Pulp hy 
the Acid or BisuljjJiite Processes. 

The boiler shown in Figs. 106 to 108 is intended to be 
used in the manufacture of wood pulp according to the acid 
or bisulphite processes, and is the invention of Mr. James 
F.. Marshall, of Rum ford, Rhode Island. 

When wood is boiled with sulphurous acid or similar 
agents for separating the fibres of the wood, the boilers 
employed require to be lined with lead in order to protect 
the iron shell from the action of the acid, and as usually 
made the sections are transverse and united by horizontal 
flanges, so that there are about five joints to each boiler. 

The object of Marshall's invention is to reduce the jointed 
surfaces and consequently lessen the liability to leakage, 
and to that end he forms the boiler with vertical flanges, and 
packs the joints as hereafter described. 

Fig. 106 is a side elevation, partly sectional, of a boiler 
constructed after Marshall's idea. Fig. 107 is a cross section 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 293 

of the same; and Fig. 108 is a detailed section in larger size 
of the flange-joint. 

The two sections of the boiler A are connected together 
by means of their flanges, a, which extend lengthwise of the 



Fig. 106. 




Fig. 107. 




Fig. 108. 




boiler. The upper part of the boiler is drawn inward to 
form a steam-dome, h, and the bottom is a,lso drawn inward 



294 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

to give support to the lining and also to reduce the area of 
the false bottom, described hereafter. 

c is the lead lining of the boiler, attached and held in 
place by its edges, that are bent out to pass between the 
flanges a. The turned edges of the lead are corrugated, 
and in the joint between the surfaces is a packing, d^ of 
asbestus, lead, or other suitable material, so that when the 
flanges are drawn together by the bolts the joint is rendered 
perfectly tight. The lining c terminates a short distance 
from the bottom of the boiler, so as to leave a clear space 
below. The object of this is that in case the lining leaks 
the steam and acid escaping through the leaks will condense 
when the boiler cools down and work down behind the 
lining to the space below and escape by small holes bored in 
the bottom of the boiler. Without this opportunity to 
escape the water of condensation would be converted into 
steam when the boiler is reheated, and the pressure would 
bulge the lining. 

e is a perforated false bottom supported by brackets /. 

The object of this is to prevent the steam from acting 
directly on the wood or other material. 

By uniting the boiler-sections by longitudinal flanges the 
extent of joint surface is largely reduced, and there is con- 
sequently less liability of leakage, which is liable to weaken, 
if not break, the lining. The boiler is also less expensive to 
manufacture and to line. 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 295 



List of Patents for preparing Cellulose from Wood by the Acid or 
Bisulphite Processes, issued by the Government of the United States of 
America from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 

67,941 

70,485 

92,229 

119,224 

253,357 

Reissue 

10,131 

263,797 

274,250 

Reissue 

10,328 

280,171 

284,319 

295,865 

296,935 

306,476 

307,972 

310,753 

329.215 1 

329.216 J 
331,323 



Date. 
Aug. 20, 1867. 
Nov. 5, 1867. 
July 6, 1869. 
Sept. 26, 1871. 
Feb. 7, 1882. 

June 6, 1882. 
Sept. 5, 1882. 
March 20, 1883. 

May 22, 1883. 
June 26, 1883. 
May 4, 1883. 
March 25, 1884. 
April 5, 1884. 
Oct. 14, 1884. 
Nov. 11, 1884. 
Jan. 13, 1885. 

Oct. 27, 1885. 
Dec. 1, 1885. 



Inventor. 
J. B. Biron. 

B. C. Tilghrnan. 
A. K. Eaton. 

CD. Ekman. 

A. Mitscherlich. 

G. Archibold. 

J. A. Graham. 
A. Mitscherlich. 
D. O. Franche. 

C. F. Dahl. 
F Fremerey. 

D. Minthorn. 
G. B. Walker. 

E. B. Ritter and C. Kellner. 
R. P. Pictet and G. L. Br61az. 



List of Patents for Digesters with Lead Linings to be vsed in the 
Preparation of Cellulose, issued by the Government of the United 
States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 




Inventor. 


238,227 


March 1, 1881. 


H. 


H. Furbish. 


259,206 


June 6, 1882. 


A. 


H. Pond. 


265,649 


Oct. 10, 1882. 


G. 


F. Wilson. 


284,319 


Sept. 4, 1883. 


A. 


Mitscherlich. 


298,602 


May 13, 1884. 


J. 


S. McDougal, 


300,778 


June 24, 1884, 


J 


A. Hitter. 


304,092 


Aug. 26, 1884. 


D. 


0. Francke. 


304,674] 
304,675 i 


Sept. 2, 1884. 


J. 


A. Southraayi 


305,740 


Sept. 30, 1884. 


E. 


H. Clapp. 


307,587 


Nov. 4, 1884. 


G. 


R. Philippe. 



296 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 




Inventor. 


307.608 1 

307.609 1 
312,485 


Nov. 4, 1884. 
Feb. 17, 1885. 


C. 
J. 


L. Wheelwright et al, 
Makin. 


312,875 


Feb. 24, 1885. 


J. 


F. Marshall. 


314,643 


March 31, 1885. 


T. 


Alcheson. 


328,812 
329,214 


Oct. 20, 1885. 
Oct. 27, 1885. 


}E. 


B. Ritter and C. Kell 



List of all Patents for Digesters for Paper Pulp, issued by the Govern- 
ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




_ 1,753 


Sept. 2, 1840. 


1 




Reissue 




\ G. Spafford. 




171 


June 11, 1850. 


J 




4,093 


June 25, 1845. 


R. Deering, Sr. 




6,980 


Dee. 25, 1849. 


L. W. Wright. 




7,497 


July 9, 1850. 


H. Pohls. 




9,910 


Aug. 2, 1853. 


} 




Reissue 




^ J. T. Coupler and M. A. C. ^ 


1,295 


March 25, 1862. 


J 




11,981 


Nov. 21, 1854. 


W. Watt. 




17,387 


May 26, 1857. 


M. A. C. Mellier. 




20,294 


May 18, 1858. 


M. Nixon. 




21,077 


Aug. 3, 1858. 


A. S. Lyman. 


'. 


24,484 


June 21, 1859. 


1 




Reissues 








996 ] 

997 1 


July 3, 1860. 


\ J. B. Falser and G. 


Howland. 


1,590 


Dec. 15, 1863. 


1 




2.730 ■ 

2.731 . 


Aug. 15, 1867. 


^ 




24,819 


July 19, 1859. 


A. S. Pitkin. 




25,418 


Sept. 13, 1859. 


M. L. Keen. 




26,199 


Nov. 22, 1859. 


M. Nixon. 




27,564 


March 20, 1860. 


G. Howland and J. 


B. Falser. 


28,062 


May 1, 1860. 


C. S. Buchanan. 




37,846 


March 10, 1863. 


S. M. Allen. 




38,901 


June 16, 1863. 


M. L. Keen. 




40,659 


Nov. 17, 1863. 


J. B. Fuller. 




40,696 


Nov. 24, 1863. 


A. S. Lyman. 




41,812 


March 1, 1864. 


J. B. Fuller. 




42,319 


April 12, 1864. 


J. Stover. 




43,015 


Jan. 7, 1864. 


J. B. Fuller and J. 


P. Upham 



ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 297 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. _ 


43,073 


Jan. 7, 1864. 


J. B. Fuller. 


44,209 


Sept. 13, 1864. 


H. B. Meech. 


45,791 


Jan. 3, 1865. 


W. Deltour. 


45,849 


Jan. 10, 1865. 


H. B. Meech. 


47,217 


April 11, 1865. 


T. A. Nixon. 


47,539 


May 2, 1865. 


J. B. Fuller and J. B. Upham 


50,108 


Sept. 26, 1865. 


J. Evans. 


50,266 


Oct. 3, 1865. 


T. A. Nixon. 


50,835 


Nov. 7, 1865. 


H. B. Meech. 


51,430 " 






51,431 

51,432 1 


Dec. 12, 1865. 




51,433 J 






51,570 
51,571 


Dec. 19, 1865. 




51.704 1 

51.705 i 


Dec. 26, 1865. 


- J. W. Dixon. 


51,706 J 






51,813 


Jan. 2, 1866. 




52.543 • 

52.544 .■ 


Feb. 13, 1866. 




52,694 


Feb. 20, 1866. 




52,941 


Feb. 27, 1866. 


J. Eastor, Jr., and F. Thiry. 


52,994 


March 6, 1866. 


A. K. Haxtun. 


54,308") 
54,309 i 


May 1, 1866. 


J. W. Dixon. 


54,510 


May 8, 1866. 


J. "\V. Dixon and G. Harding. 


54,932 


May 22, 1866. 


H. B. Meech. 


55,031 


May 22, 1866. 


H. Voelter. 


55,253 


June 5, 1866. 


J. W. Dixon. 


55,418 


June 5, 1866. 


) 


Reissue 




I H. L. Jones and D. S. Farquh 


2,383 


June 23, 1866. 


J 


55,835 


June 26, 1866. 


J. W. Dixon. 


56,832 


July 31, 1866. 


J. Tiffany. 


57,947 
61,848 


Sept. 11, 1866. 
Feb. 5, 1867. 


1 H. B. Meech. 


63,044 


March 19, 1867. 


J. E. Haskell. 


71,728 


Dec. 3, 1867. 


A. Fickett. 


73,138 


Jan. 7, 1868. 


J. TiHkny. 


80,737 


Aug. 4, 1868. 


W. Holdman. 


84,850 


Dec. 8, 1868. 


Geo. L. AVitsil. 


90,566 
94,228 


May 25, 1869. 
Aug. 31, 1869. 


1 G. E. Marshall. 



298 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 

96,237 
106,135 
108,241 
108,487 
109,595 
110,873 

Reissue 
4,771 
113,502 
114,301 
115,327 
116,980 
117,427 
117,683 
119,107 
119,465 
123,757 
124,196 
128,732 
131,794 
137,484 
140,333 
141,016 
143,546 
148,125 
151,127 
151,991 
155,836 
166,117 
168,382 
196,965 
197,850 
206,277 
209,179 
212,447 
234,144 
234,431 
238,227 
240,318 
241,815 
246,083 
258,400 
259,206 



Date. 
Oct. 26, 1869. 
Aug. 9, 1870. 
Oct. 11, 18'70. 
Oct. 18, 1870. 
Nov. 29, 1870. 
Jan. 10, 1871. 

Feb. 25, 1872. 
April 11, 1871. 
May 2, 1871. 
May 30, 1871. 
July 11, 1871. 
July 25, 1871. 
Aug. 1, 1871. 
Sept. 19, 1871. 
Oct. 3, 1871. 
Feb. 13, 1871. 
March 5, 1872. 
July 9, 1872. 
Oct. 1, 1872. 
April 1, 1873. 
June 24, 1873. 
July 22, 1873. 
Oct. 7, 1873. 
March 3, 1874. 
May 19, 1874. 
June 16, 1874. 
Oct. 13, 1874. 
July 27, 1875. 
Oct. 5, 1875. 
Nov. 13, 1877. 
Dec. 4, 1877. 
July 23, 1878. 
Oct. 22, 1878. 
Feb. 18, 1879. 
Nov. 9, 1880. 
Nov. 16, 1880. 
March 1, 1881. 
April 19, 1881. 
May 24, 1881. 
Aug. 23, 1881. 
May 23, 1882. 
June 6, 1882. 



Inventor. 
V. E. Keegan. 
L. Dean. 

A. H. F. Deininger. 
M. I.,. Keen. 

L. Dean. 

G. Sinclair. 

J. Denis. 
M. L. Keen. 
W. F. Ladd. 
H. B. Meech. 
M. L. Keen. 
W. Kiddell. 

B. F. Barker. 
M. L. Keen. 

F. W. Zanders. 

G. Demailly. 
M. L. Keen. 
D. A. Fyfe. 
L. Routledge. 

W. E. Woodbridge. 

L. Routledge. 

A. Ungerer. 

H. J. Lanhouse, 

J. P. Herron. 

A. S. Lyman. 

W. F. Ladd. 

H. Loring. 

J. W. Dixon. 

H. Allen and L. S. Mason. 

W. W. Harding. 

J. Thorpe. 

G. Miles. 

S. and J. Deacon. 

W. R. Patrick. 

J. Saunders. 

H. H. Furbish. 

M. L. Keen. 

H. B. Meech. 

H. Coker. 

H. A. Frambach. 

G. H. Pond. 



OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 



299 



No. 

259,658 

269,649 

276,163 

284,319 

286,031 

298,602 

300,778 

304,092 

304,674) 

304,676] 

305,740 

307,587 

307,608 

307,609 

312,875 

313,011 

314,643 

328,812 

329,214 

329,217 

329,949 

333,105 



Date. 
June 20, 1882. 
Oct. 10, 1882. 
April 24, 1883. 
Sept. 4, 1883. 
Oct. 2, 1883. 
May 13, 1884. 
June 24, 1884. 
Aug. 26, 1884. 

Sept. 2, 1884. 

Sept. 30, 1884. 
Nov. 4, 1884. 
Nov. 4, 1884. 
Nov. 4, 1884. 
Feb. 24, 1885. 
Feb. 24, 1885. 
March 31, 1885. 
Oct. 20, 1885. 

Oct. 27, 1885. 

Nov. 10, 1885. 
Dec. 29, 1885. 



Inventor. 
T. Atclieson. 
G. T. Wilson. 
J. W. Dixon. 

A. Mitscherlich. 
G. E. Marshall. 
J. S. McDougall. 
J. A. Hitter. 

D. O. Francke. 

J. A. Southniayd. 

E. H. Clapp. 
G. K. Phillips. 

C. S. AVeelwright. 

C. S. Weel Wright and G. E. Marshall. 

J. F. Marshall. 

B. F. MuUin. 
T. Atcheson. 

E. B. Ritter and C. Killner. 

J. F. Quinn. 

C. Bremaker and M. Zier, Sr. 



Methods other than the Mechanical, Soda, and Bisul- 
phite Processes for the Treatment of Wood. 

Aussedafs Process of Treating Wood} 

By this process the wood is disintegrated by means of an 
injection of steam. The apparatus consists of a vertical 
boiler, tested at six atmospheres, four and one-half feet in 
diameter, and about ten feet high ; it is closed at its upper 
part by a manhole used to fill and discharge the wood; it is 
provided at the lower part with a perforated false bottom 
upon which the wood rests, so that there remains between the 



' Dictionnaire de Chemie, Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 



300 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

false and true bottoms of the boiler a space sufficient to con- 
tain the condensed steam, which can be discharged by 
means of a cock or valve, according to the requirements of 
the work. 

Another valve is placed upon the manhole, to be used at 
the end of the operation to discharge the non-condensed 
steam. The boiler is supported upon two hollow lateral 
axles, resting in suitable boxes, and used for the admission 
of steam. The wood is piled in the boiler so as to occupy 
the least possible space ; the filling of the boiler being com- 
pleted the manhole is closed. The discharge valves being- 
closed, the injection of steam is proceeded with. The 
steam must be as dry as possible, and it must be admitted 
gradually. This last condition is essential, if a supple and 
strong pulp is desired, and to prevent the wood from get- 
ting black. For this reason the steam-cock is only one- 
third opened, and it is then regulated so as to attain, after 
three or four hours, a temperature corresponding to five 
atmospheres, which temperature must be maintained for 
about one hour. 

During the operation the condensation chamber must often 
be emptied, as the least contact of the wood with this water 
would blacken the wood; furthermore, the rush of steam 
which takes place at the moment of the opening of the dis- 
charge valve facilitates the disintegration, in removing, 
either by dissolution or by displacement, all the gummy and 
resinous matters which fill the cells of the wood. These 
condensed liquids are heavily colored during the first part of 
the operation. It is advisable to open for a few minutes the 



OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 301 

valve placed on the manhole, so as to insure a convenient 
distribution of the heat ; the air thns being evacuated a free 
circulation of steam is insured. 

'J'he time required for the injection varies according to 
the wood to be treated ; it takes three hours for white woods, 
poplar, aspen, birch, etc., and five hours for hard and resi- 
nous woods. 

The steam valve being closed, the two valves on the 
boiler are opened in order to completely discharge the 
steam and not to allow it to settle upon the wood. Every- 
thing being cooled the discharging of the wood is proceeded 
with. 

The wood is then of a reddish color, more or less dark, 
according to the nature of the wood treated and to the pres- 
sure of the steam injected. The higher the pressure used, 
the darker will be the wood. 

A much clearer shade in the wood is obtained if a pres- 
sure of three atmospheres is not exceeded and the duration 
of the injection prolonged; but the disintegration of the 
wood is not so complete and the subsequent operations for 
the trituration will be rendered longer and more difficult. 

When, for the injection, steam is introduced in a boiler 
the pressure of which is already at five atmospheres, great 
precautions must be taken to prevent the too prompt heating 
of the wood. The admission valve must be operated with 
intelligence. It is best to make steam in proportion to the 
consumption and to start the fire under the steam generator 
when the filling of the boiler is commenced; the greatest 



302 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

drawback to be feared in the management of the operation 
is thus avoided. 

The wood is charged into the boiler for injection in any 
shape, with or without the bark, without it being necessary 
to remove the knots or the rotten parts ; the bark is suffi- 
ciently softened by the injection, while the knots, etc., are re- 
moved by the condensing water. Still, it is better to remove 
the bark than to allow it to remain, but, then, its removal is 
done so much more easily after the injection than before. 
The wood is generally used in the shape of logs three feet, 
of any diameter ; chips, shavings, wastes from saw- mills, 
packing-shops, floor-joiners, etc., can all be utilized. 

The trituration succeeding the disintegration is subdivided 
into two parts : the crushing and the refining. 

The wood, which has been injected in the shape of logs, 
is cross cut in sections f of an inch thick by means of a cir- 
cular saw. The sawdust produced by this operation is very 
fibrous: it may be worked into pulp, but as its refining 
takes a long time it is generally burned. 

The production of this sawdust may be avoided by sub- 
mitting the log at its end to the action of a chipper of the 
style used to crush resinous barks or tincture woods ; but its 
reduction in disks gives a more uniform pulp, while the pro- 
ducts obtained through the use of a chipper are very uneven. 
Furthermore, we may, with the disk, and when the disinte- 
gration has been well performed, obtain long or short fibres 
by varying the thickness of this disk, which is of great ad- 
vantage, considering the commercial value of the product. 

The disks are crushed by means of the crushing-machine 



OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 303 

invented and patented in France by Mr. Iwan Koechlin and 
operated for the first time at the Isle Saint Martin. This 
apparatus is essentially composed of a vertical shaft upon 
which a burr-pestle of a special pattern is mounted, which 
drags, breaks, and crushes the wood against the sides of a 
fixed envelope or shell, the interior of which represents, in 
inverse sense, the relief of the burr-pestle. It is, in one 
word, a kind of coffee-mill. One of these crushers, requir- 
ing three horse-power, will prepare about 75 lbs. of wood 
per hour. According to the opinion of manufacturers who 
have these machines in use, they answer the purpose very 
successfully. Mr. Roger, machinist at Epinal, France, built 
them. 

The crushed wood is mixed with water in sufficient quan- 
tity, in the agitating boxes, before its passage through the 
mill. 

The mills used and patented in France by Mr. Aussedat, 
are provided with conical millstones. The opening in the 
lower millstone is more inclined towards the horizontal line, 
in order to give passage to the material. Burr-stones give 
excellent results, but they should be of one piece, as the 
water rapidly disintegrates the plaster which is commonly 
used to bind the fragments together ; when whole stones 
cannot be had, the fragments should be united with cement. 
Granite-stones yield less product, and furthermore, they wear 
off rapidly and require frequent dressing. 

These pulps are especially used for fine card-board and 
wall papers. The cream tint of the prepared wood presents 
to the eye a very agreeable ground, much appreciated by the 



304 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

wall-paper manufacturers, as the colors show upon this ground 
in fresher and sharper lines than upon any other paper. 
Still, it is possible, that some economical method may be 
found to bleach the product of the Aussedat process. The 
problem does not offer as many difficulties as the bleaching 
of the Voelter pulp, as the larger part of the sap and the 
rosin have been displaced by the dissolving action of the 
steam. 

It results from experiments made at the Onnonay labora- 
tory, and which Mr. Bourdillat has kindly communicated, 
that the manipulation by steam causes a mechanical and a 
chemical action ; it traverses the cellular tissue of the wood, 
dissolving and expelling the larger portion of the gummy 
and resinous substances which fill the cell. Furthermore, 
the heat disengages a certain quantity of acetic acid, the 
action of which adds to that of the steam, acting especially 
upon the incrustating matter. 

The following experiments have been made to bleach the 
more or less deep reddish pulp : — - 

1. The use of hydrochloric or azotic acids in the boiling- 
removes from the pulp a large portion of the incrustating 
matter : thus treated, the pulp presents a clearer tint after 
washing, but it is susceptible to the action of hypochlorites 
only when operated upon in highly concentrated baths and 
under the influence of heat. The hypochlorite baths used 
must be at least of 400 chlorometric degrees. (French.) 

2. The fermentation, produced by the addition of a certain 
quantity of beer yeast to the pulp, previously slightly acidu- 
lated by sulphuric acid, produces a clear enough pulp, if the 



OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 305 

fermentation lasts only a few days ; the pulp will be gray if 
this action is unduly prolonged. In the first form the pulp 
is not sensibly susceptible to the hypochlorites, while in the 
latter the bleaching is effected tolerably with 400° (French) 
baths. The large waste resulting from this method, and the 
considerable time needed to complete the action of the fer- 
mentation, make this process impracticable. 

The caustic alkalies have not given good results, the color- 
ing matter becomes of a darker hue, and resists more ener- 
getically the action of the hypochlorites than when the pulp 
has been previously treated. 

BacJiet'MacJiard Process of Disintegrating Wood} 

Messrs. Jwan Koechlin Sc Co. have carried on the Bachet- 
Machard patent at the Isle Saint Martin, near Chatel ( Vosges), 
France, and it has also been experimented with on a large 
scale at Bex and at Saint Tryphon, Switzerland. At the 
start, the inventors had in view the saccharification of wood, 
the paper-pulp being intended to be only a secondary pro- 
duct of the manufacture of alcohol, but in practice the inverse 
result has been obtained ; the paper-pulp becoming the prin- 
cipal product and alcohol the secondary one. 

The wood, previously sawed in thin disks, was thrown in 
tubs, the filling of which was then completed with water and 
sulphuric acid ; the latter in the proportion of one-tenth. 
Each tub would contain 188 cubic feet; 18 hours' boiling 
was needed ; the disks were then washed as well as possible 

' Dictionnah-e de Chemie. Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 
20 



306 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in order to eliminate the acid, then passed through the crushers 
and the mills. Each 31|- cubic feet produced about 330 lbs. 
of dry pulp; 66 lbs. of acid and 136 lbs. of coal were used 
for the production of 220 lbs. of pulp. Calculating the value 
of the wood at Sj\ cents per cubic foot, the cost of production 
of 220 lbs. of pulp would be $1.95. 

With the Bachet-Machard method a brown pulp is ob- 
tained, producing a good brown folding paper costing about 
90 cents per 100 lbs. dry pulp. This brown pulp is easily 
transformed, by a half bleaching, into a blond pulp costing 
about $2 per 100 lbs., and which can be utilized, with or 
without mixing, for the manufacture of wrapping-paper and 
of all the colored papers. Up to this time a method for 
economically transforming this blond pulp into white pulp 
has not been found. 

The inventors think that the tenth of acid, which they 
cause to react at 212° F. upon the wood, saccharifies the 
ligneous, or rather the incrustating substance, without touch- 
ing the cellulose fibres. Thus the cellulose becomes easily 
separated into fibres by mechanical means. It is prob- 
able that the acids modify the incrustating substance and ren- 
der it friable, and that at the same time certain principles 
of the wood are converted into glucose. 

The process is the same as with straw and esparto, when 
alkaline washes are used, but it requires more energetic 
boiling ; the proportion of alkali is doubled and the boiling 
done at a pressure of 165 lbs. 

A little more chlorine is also required for the bleaching. 



OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 307 



The yield of esparto is . 


48 


oer cent. 


a 


rye-straw . 


42 




u 


■wheat- straw 


40 




(( 


oats-straw . 


36 




(( 


barley-straw 


32 




a 


buckwheat-straw 


26 




u 


pine-wood (the most used) 


30 





As per quality, the siiccedaneous pulps may be classified 
in the following order: — 

1, Esparto-pulp; 2, wood-pulp; 3, rye-pulp; 4, wheat- 
straw-pulp; 5, oats-straw- pulp ; 6, barley-straw-pulp ; 7, buck- 
wheat-straw-pulp. 

Treating Wood icith Aqua Regia. 

A. Poncharac, near Grenoble, uses aqua regia (nitro- 
hydrochloric acid), cold, for disintegrating the wood; 94 
parts of ordinary hydrochloric acid and 6 parts of azotic 
acid are employed in earthen vessels of a capacity of 175 
gallons. It is allowed to soak from 6 to 12 hours. 132 
pounds of aqua regia are required for 220 pounds of wood. 
It is a dangerous process. When it is desired to operate 
with hot liquids, 6 parts of hydrochloric acid, 4 parts of 
azotic acid, and 240 parts of water are used, in granite 
tubs, provided with a double bottom; it is then heated by 
the admission of steam during 12 hours, then washed and 
crushed. 

Treating Wood ivitJi Ammonia, etc. 

It has also been proposed to boil the wood in ammonia, 
in a closed vessel, heating by steam by means of a worm. 
900 gallons of ordinary ammonia are used to disintegrate 



J308 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

3300 pounds of wood. 65 to 75 pounds of caustic soda are 
added, and the operation is followed by bleaching. 

There has been mentioned a process patented in France 
by Mr. Tessie du Motay. The wood is treated under pres- 
sure with alkaline liquids, then bleached by means of man- 
ganate of sodium. The incrustating substances dissolved 
in the lye may be separated from it by a stream of carbonic 
acid ; the alkali is thus regenerated at little cost. 

It has also been proposed to replace the caustic alkalies 
with sulphuret of sodium, which would act like them, but 
which would offer the advantage of an easy regeneration of 
the active agent, as it would be sufficient to evaporate and 
calcine the lyes in order to destroy the organic matters and 
to recover the primitive alkaline sulphuret. 



WASHING RAGS. 309 



CHAPTER X. 

washing rags — washing waste paper or " imperfections" 

washing straw washing wood pulp washing and 

poaching esparto — wash water — list of patents for 
pu;.p-washing and straining. 

Washing Rags. 

The next process to which the material to be reduced to 
paper pulp is subjected is that of washing. 

For lower grades of paper, such as wrapping, etc., the 
rags (of which we shall first particularly speak) or other 
materials are washed and beaten into pulp in one engine; 
but for the production of " half-stuff" or bleached pulp 
separate engines are commonly employed in the United 
States in which to accomplish the washing and the beating. 

The rag engine is commonly known as "The Hollander," 
from the fact that it was invented in Holland about the 
middle of the eighteenth century. Prior to the invention 
of the rag-engine, rags were reduced to pulp by stamps or 
beaters acting in mortars, the contrivance being not unlike 
the stamping mills used for reducing ores to powder ; but 
as it would require about five thousand of these stamps to 
supply a modern Fourdrinier machine of average width and 
speed, it will readily be seen that the enormous modern 
development of the paper-making industry is largely owing 



310 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 



to the Dutch invention which made it possible to use the 
paper machine invented by the French workman Robert, 
who was employed in the paper-mill at Essone in 1798, 
and which machine is now commonly known as the 
"Fourdrinier." 

The machines used for washing and beating are almost 
similar in their construction ; in the rolls of the washing- 
engine, however, there are usually only two bars to the 
bunch, while in the rolls of the beater there are usually 
three bars to the bunch. 

Tm. 109. 




The rag engines employed in the mills of the United 
States vary in size and details of construction. In Figs. 
109 to 111 the principal parts of the rag-engine are shown. 

Figure 109 represents a top or plan view of the engine. 



WASHING EAGS. 



311 



Figure 110 is a vertical longitudinal section of Fig. 109, 
through the line x x. Figure 111 is a vertical cross-section 
of Fig. 109, through the line y y. 



Fie 110. 




Fiff. Ill 




A represents the tub, trough, tank, or vat, which may 
measure about 12 feet long by 6 feet wide and 2 feet deep. 

B is the cylinder or roll fitted with bars which revolve at 
a high rate of speed on the plate J, also furnished with bars ; 
the term " bars" being the technical name for knives. G 
is the back-fall ; and D the mid-fellow. 

As these engines were made about fifteen years ago, the 
back-fail C was carried up to an angle at its top by continu- 
ing the curve e, and then dropping back directly, as at /. 
From the point / the back-fall sloped down to the bottom 
of the tub, leaving sharp angles on each side. These sharp 
or right angles were continued around the rnid-fellow and 



312 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



around the tub, allowing the fibre of the half-ground pulp 
to catch and hang m the angles or corners, thereby obstruct- 
ing the current, while the fibre which thus caught in the 
corners would not receive its proper share of grinding, but 
being mixed with the rest of the pulp, the result was pulp 
of uneven fineness, which is very detrimental to good paper. 

To remedy these evils, the top of the back-fall was curved 
or rounded ofi* as seen at g^ and the back slope curved trans- 
versely, as seen at 7i, and the corner or angle of the tub and 
that of the mid-fellow were rounded, as seen at i i. 

Figs. 112 and 113 show the washing or breaking engirie 
more in detail, and the operation is as follows : — 

Fiff. 112. 




The tub of the engine should be half filled with water, 
which is admitted through the valve Z), after which the rags 
or other materials are taken from the trucks on which they 
come from the boiler and are gradually introduced into the 
engine. When the proper quantity of boiled rags or other 
material has been placed in the engine the operation of 
washing is commenced, and the roll B is let down just 
sufficiently to open up the rags and allow the dirt to escape. 



WASHING RAGS. 



313 



The rags or other material to be washed should not be 
introduced into the trough of the engine in such quantities 



Fi<i. 113. 




as to be so thick that difficulty will be experienced in 
turning it. 

When the engine is started the stirring stick should be 
used directly above the sand-trap, and around the sides and 
back- fall of the engine. The object in thus using the stir- 
ring stick is to prevent '• lodgers," or pieces of rag not 
reduced to half-stuff, from hanging or catching about, which 
pieces if not forced to travel with the current cause knots 
and gray specks in the finished paper. 

The water introduced into the trough of the engine is 
withdrawn by the washer E^ which consists of a drum about 
three feet in diameter and of such width as to allow a space 
of about two inches on each side between it and the sides of 
the engine. The periphery of the washer E is covered with 



314 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

fine wire-cloth, atid in the interior of the drum there are 
arranged buckets indicated by the dotted lines G. The 
washer E is partly immersed in the water and material con- 
tained in the trough, and as the drum revolves the buckets 
G lift the water into a conical pipe and discharge it through 
the spout H. 

In regard to the time which the rags or other materials 
are treated in the washing and breaking engine, it is of 
course not possible to apply any fixed rule, as the duration 
of the treatment varies with the capacity of the trough, the 
weight of the roll, the number of its revolutions per minute, 
the extent to which its bars and those of the bed-plate are 
worn, the quantity and nature of the water used in washing, 
the nature of the rags or other material being washed, and 
the skill and experience of the workman who directs the 
operation. 

The quality of the paper depends largely upon the knowl- 
edge possessed by the workman having charge of the wash- 
ing and breaking department of the mill, and an experienced 
man is generally known by the cleanliness of his surround- 
ings. 

When the water from the washing engine runs off clean 
the roll is lowered upon the bed-plate so as to disintegrate 
the rags or other material being operated upon, which gradu- 
ally lose their compact or textile appearance, and are con- 
verted into a substance greatly resembling that of a fine, 
long-fibred lint saturated with water, the new substance 
being more or less white, according to the nature of the ma- 
terial from which it has been produced. 



WASHING RAGS. 315 

In mills where the number of washmg and beating engines 
is limited it is often necessary to hasten the process of reduc- 
ing the rags to half-stuff, but such haste must necessarily be 
at the expense of the quality of the product, and it is seldom 
that the work of reducing rags can be properly accomplished 
in less than two or three hours. 

It is necessary to continue the reduction of the rags for a 
longer time when the bleaching is to be accomplished with 
chlorine gas than when liquid chlorine is to be employed. 

The old custom of bleaching in the washing and beating 
engine is almost exclusively employed in the mills of the 
United States ; but the plan is not a good one, as a larger 
number of engines are required, and the metallic tubs are 
more or less corroded by the action of the chlorine and sul- 
phuric acid employed to neutralize the agent used to accom- 
plish the bleaching, and this is especially true of the bars of 
the roll and the bed-plates which are not protected by a coat- 
ing of paint as is the case with the interior of the trough. 

When the stuff is in condition for emptying into the 
drainers or into the bleaching cisterns, the discharge valve 
should be carefully drawn and deposited on the floor until 
the engine is empty. 

Before replacing the valve the workman in charge throws 
a few buckets of water under the cylinder in order to remove 
any of the half-stuff remaining adhering to the back-fall. 

The valve should also be carefully washed before it is 
replaced, as dirt and sand are always lodged in the hole on 
the top of the valve, and when the valve is carelessly drawn 
these impurities escape with the stuff. 



316 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 

The sand-trap plate should next be lifted and all impuri- 
ties carefully removed, after which the plate is replaced and 
the engine is ready for the reduction of a new lot. 

If the paper is to possess the requisite strength care must 
be observed not to reduce the rags to half-stuff too quickly, 
as in such case the washing will not be properly done and 
the material will be weakened ; but if attention and time are 
given for properly drawing the stuff into fibre there results 
no injury to its texture, and a stronger and better paper can 
be produced. 

It is desirable to keep a register of the daily operations 
in the engine-room, in which the time of commencing and 
completing each operation may be recorded, and for night- 
work, when the superintendence is less regular than during 
the day, such a record is especially desirable. 

The average waste resulting from washing, boiling, and 
reduction of the rag's to half-stuff can be only approximated ; 
Prouteaux gives the following figures, which are probably 
from 10 to 15 per cent, too high: — 



Whites, fine, half-fine 7 to 10 per cent. 

" coarse 9 to 13 " 

Cottons, white 7 to 9 " 

" colored 8 to 14 " 

Thirds and pack-cloths 18 to 26 " 

Ropes 20 to 25 " 

" tarred and containing much straw . . 20 to 35 " 

The pipe which supplies the water to the washing or 
breaking engine varies in size from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, 
the diameter depending upon the pressure of the water, the 
size of the engine, and the capacity of the washers, and, as 



WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 317 

it is necessary to mix the water with the pulp as quickly as 
the action of the cyhnder will allow, the water is admitted 
at the end where the rags ascend. 

There are two systems in use in regard to the manner of 
admitting the water to the tub of the engine; one method 
being to allow the water to flow in from the top, and the 
other plan being to let it in at the lower part of the tub. 
. When the supply of water is introduced from the top the 
flow can always be observed, and flannel bags or other 
additional filtering arrangements can be more conveniently 
attached to the mouth of the supply pipe. 

But if the water is naturally very pure or has been care- 
fully filtered, its admission from the bottom of the tub fur- 
nishes an easy mechanical means for keeping up the stir- 
ring of the contents of the tub, removing "lodgers," and 
forcing the dirty water to the top, where it is removed by 
the washers. 

Washing Waste Paper or "Imperfections." 

Scrap-paper, be it newspaper, letter-paper, or book-paper, 
when used as a stock from which to make paper, is by the 
paper-maker termed " imperfections." 

The boiled papers are conveyed on trucks from the open 
boilers, from which they are lifted on the false bottom and 
are supplied to the washing engine, which should be pro- 
vided with blunt bars, and abundantly supplied with clear 
wash water. 

When the tub of the engine has been properly supplied 



318 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

with the deshed quantity of imperfections the cylinder is 
raised and the washers made to revolve until the water runs 
off clear, when the cylinder is lowered and the papers 
brushed out. 

When the imperfections are boiled, rags and threads 
always make their appearance in the stock, no matter how 
carefully the papers have been sorted. Sometimes papers 
are pasted on one or both sides of a body of cloth, which 
does not make its appearance until the paper has been 
separated from it, either by the action of the water when 
heated in the boiler, or by the brushing in the engine, and 
small threads are often overlooked on account of their fine- 
ness. 

A rack, constructed similar to those used for water-wheels, 
and placed across the tub of the engine, between the mid- 
fellow and front side, where the pulp begins to ascend the 
cylinder, has been recommended for catching the rags and 
strings. 

The upright teeth which form the rack are fastened in a 
frame of hard wood which hangs in boxes on the mid-fellow 
and front side of the engine. The lower part of the frame 
rests on the floor of the engine. 

The teeth should be sufficiently strong to resist the pres- 
sure of the pulp, and are arranged about 2| inches apart, 
and should be about f of an inch thick at the back end. 

It is desirable to have the edges of the teeth which come 
in contact with the pulp either sharp or pointed, as the 
strings then catch on easier. Metal teeth, which become 



WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 319 

polished and allow the strings to slip off, are not as good as 
wooden ones. 

When it is not desired to use the rack it is raised and 
held above the tub by placing under the rack a stick or 
paddle, one end of which rests on the mid-fellow and the 
other end on the front side of the tub. But when the 
imperfections have been sufficiently reduced to pass through 
the rack, the stick or paddle is removed and the rack 
lowered into working position, and it must be frequently 
raised to remove the rags and strings from the teeth. 

The pulp, after being properly xeduced, can be bleached 
in the engine in the same way as rags, or by such other 
methods as may be desirable. 

Low-priced paper is produced from one class of imperfec- 
tions, and the entire operation can be finished in one engine ; 
but if it is desired to produce a paper of the best quality 
from different classes of waste papers by mixing the various 
pulps, it is much better to empty the bleached pulp into 
drainers. 

When it is possible to obtain fine blue letter-paper in large 
lots such material should not be bleached, but only washed, 
as its pulp furnishes a coloring material which can often be 
used in lieu of ultramarine. 

The difficulty commonly experienced in repulping paper- 
stock — that is, clippings and scraps of paper — arises from the 
breaking or shortening of the fibres, which are thus made so 
short that they will not unite to form a sheet of adequate 
strength. The paper having been previously hardened and 
toughened by the admixture with the pulp of size and other 



320 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

substances, it is found that the necessary grinding and disin- 
tegrating required to pulp it break and destroy the fibre. 
It has been customary, therefore, to mingle with the paper- 
stock a quantity of rags, and to reduce the whole to pulp by 
grinding them together. Thus the paper-stock is employed 
merely as a filler, the fibre being supplied by the rags. 

Mr. Charles Coon, of Saugerties, N. Y., by a process in- 
vented by him, claims to preserve the fibre of the paper-stock 
in repulping it, so that the stock may be employed alone or 
without the admixture of rags or other fibrous material in 
the manufacture of paper. To this end it is necessary to re- 
move the sizing which firmly binds the fibres together, after 
which it is claimed they will readily separate without break- 
ing under the subsequent operation of the beater or pulper. 

When proceeding according to Mr. Coon's method, first 
place the paper-stock, which usually consists of cuttings, 
clippings, and waste, in an upright tank or vessel having a 
perforated false bottom, and add to it a solution of pearlash 
of about six degrees strength, in the proportion of about two 
gallons to six hundred pounds of the dry stock. Water, 
either hot or cold, may be added to the dry stock before the 
steam is admitted, if desired. The vessel is then covered 
and hot steam admitted under the false bottom of the vessel 
for about four hours. This treatment causes the sizing and 
other substances to separate from the stock and to rise to the 
surface of the water of condensation which will have accumu- 
lated in the vessel. The steam is now shut off, and water 
(either hot or cold) is admitted at the bottom of the vessel 
until the water in the latter rises, bearing the sizing, etc.. 



WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 321 

on its surface, and overflows the top of the vessel or passes 
off at a waste outlet. This the inventor terms " floating" 
the size. When the surface impurities are thus removed the 
incoming water is cut off and the water in the vessel is 
allowed to drain off at the bottom. The stock thus treated 
is termed " water-leaf," and contains little or no sizing or 
other substances which would cause the fibres to adhere. 

In floating off the size after the steaming operation, it is 
preferable to admit warm or hot water at the bottom of the 
tank, although the hot stock may be sufficient to warm it. 
Care should be taken that the size be not chilled, as it will 
set and be difficult to remove. 

The next step consists in removing the water-leaf to the 
beater, where it is placed in water having a temperature of 
from 120° to 150° F., and to which has previously been 
added two gallons of solution of pearlash of about 6° 
strength, which serves to remove or destroy all the size that 
may remain in the stock, and leaves the latter in condition to 
receive the bleach, color, etc. 

The temperature of the water or solution in the beater 
should not exceed 150° F., as a higher temperature is liable 
to thicken or cook the sizing materials employed in pre- 
paring the pulp for use. For pulping soft material 120° F. is 
sufficient. It is preferable to employ this temperature for 
rag-stock fibre, while for grass or wood fibre 140° F. is 
preferable. 

It is best to employ pearlash as the best form of potash, 
as caustic potash appears to weaken, rot, or burn the fibres, 
and they break and become too short in the operation of 

21 



322 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

pulping. The pearlasli solution should be of sufficient 
strength to remoYe the sizing and free the fibres, and this 
will vary somewhat with the kind of stock employed, the 
softer kinds requiring a little weaker, and the harder kinds 
a little stronger solution than that named; but a slight 
experience will enable the operator to readily determine the 
proper strength for his purpose. 

When the water-leaf is placed in the beater the pulping 
proceeds, and while it is in progress the chlorine is added, 
which bleaches the mass in about fifteen minutes. The 
chlorine being employed while the stock is hot, the bath 
in the beater being kept at from 120° to 150° F., it accom- 
plishes its work and passes off with the steam and vapor, 
leaving no traces behind. Consequently it is not necessary 
to employ anti-chlorine to remove it, as is ordinarily done. 

By the ordinary method the bleaching is commonly done 
while the stock is in the washer and known as " half-stuff," 
and from the washer it is let down into the drainers, where 
it is allowed to remain eight or ten days. The anti- chlorine 
is added when this half-stuff is removed to the beater, and 
as cold water is usually employed in beating or pulping, the 
chlorine is generally only partially removed, and the paper 
made from the stock is apt to turn yellow with age. 

In the present process the hot pearl ash solution acts in 
concert with the chlorine, so as to accelerate the bleaching 
of the stock or pulp and to dissipate the chlorine, as above 
stated. 

After the stock has been reduced to pulp in the beater it 
may be sized, colored, etc., in the usual way. 



WASHING STRAW. 323 

Waste papers are sometimes washed in a circuit-vat 
furnished with a paddle-wheel and a rotary washer such as 
is shown in Fig. 69. 

Washing Straw. 

After the straw has been boiled it is sometimes washed by 
emptying it from the boiler into a vat or tub of suitable capa- 
city, which should have a false perforated bottom. Before the 
straw is emptied into the vat the perforated bottom should 
be covered with a piece of coarse bagging or cocoa-matting, 
which will allow the liquid to escape. Hot water under a 
strong pressure should be introduced beneath the false 
bottom, and after the water has risen and become sufficiently 
mixed with the pulp the contents of the tub should be 
stirred with paddles and then allowed to drain ; the opera- 
tion being repeated until the pulp has been sufficiently 
washed. 

If possible, the straw pulp should be washed in the wash- 
ing engine in preference to the tubs just described ; but in 
some mills the tubs and washing engine are both used, the 
pulp being pumped from the tubs to the washing engines 
while it is in a fluid state, or if it is allowed to drain in the 
tubs the pulp is conveyed on trucks to the engine. 

If the straw has been properly digested the bed-plate of 
the washing engine should be smooth and the bars of the 
cylinder should be blunt, as it will not be necessary to subject 
the pulp to any further disintegrating action. 

The first washing of the pulp in the washing engine 



324 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

should be done with hot water in order to thoroughly wash 
out any alkali so as to avoid loss of chlorine in the bleaching. 
After being washed the pulp is either emptied into drainers, 
and after being removed treated like rag pulp, or it may be 
emptied into a large stufF-chest provided with a suitable 
agitator from whence it is run over a wet machine for the 
purpose of removing sand, knots, and other parts of the straw 
which have not been thoroughly digested. 

The bleaching of straw pulp is usually accomplished in 
the washing engine in the same manner as rags. 

Washing Wood Pulp. 

Mechanically prepared wood pulp is simply added to and 
thoroughly incorporated with the rag pulp in the beating 
engine ; but as it is necessary to reduce it to the finest fibres 
it is subjected to the action of the cylinder for about one and 
one-half hour. 

Chemically prepared wood pulp after being emptied out 
of the digester into the discharge tank is allowed to drain, 
and the liquor is saved to be used for the first wash to which 
the pulp is subjected while in the digester, as has been ex- 
plained on page 249. When the fibre has been allowed to 
properly drain in the tank the drain-cock is closed and warm 
water is run in until the tank is full, and after it has been 
allowed sufficient time to penetrate the fibres the drain valve 
is again opened and the water drained off, and afterwards the 
tank is again run full of water and then drained as before. 

After being washed in the tank as has been described, the 
pulp is allowed to drain as dry as possible after the second 



WASHING AND POACHING ESPARTO. 325 

washing and is then transferred, either by a centrifugal 
pump or by other suitable means, to the washing engine, 
which should have a smooth bed-plate and blunt bars on the 
cylinder. 

If the pulp has been properly prepared but little washing 
will be necessary in the engine, and any chips which are in 
the pulp will be readily reduced to fibre by the action of the 
cylinder. 

After the washing is completed the valve on the water- 
supply pipe is closed and a sufficient quantity of water is 
removed by the washer to make room for the bleaching 
liquor, which is then introduced at a temperature of about 
100° F., and the engine run until the desired color is ob- 
tained, after which the pulp is run into the drainers. 

If the pulp is to be used at the mill where the fibre is pro- 
duced it is desirable to run it from the washing engine into 
a large stufi'-chest, such as has been mentioned for straw, 
from whence it is passed over a wet machine before bleach- 
ing ; but if it is intended to make the fibre into dry rolls for 
transportation the screening can be accomplished during the 
passage over the machine as it is being fabricated into rolls. 

Washing and " Poaching" Esparto. 

The washing of esparto is a simple operation if the treat- 
ment of the grass in the boiler has received proper attention. 
The tub of the washing engine is half-filled with water, 
after which the grass is introduced and run for about twenty 
or thirty minutes. 

Esparto is not commonly bleached in the washing engine, 



326 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

but is passed in a " poacher," which is arranged on a slightly 
lower level than the washer. 

The poacher or the " potching engine," as it is also termed, 
is larger than the washer, and instead of the cylinder and 
bars it has a hollow drum which carries on its periphery a 
number of cast-iron paddles which thoroughly agitate the 
pulp. 

In introducing the half-stuff from the washer to the 
poacher care should be exercised to keep the quantities as 
near uniform as possible, as irregular bleaching will result if 
the quantity of stuff filled into the poacher is changed and 
the bleach is not varied accordingly. 

A finer wire is used on the washer of the poacher than 
on that of the washing engine ; the washing in the poacher 
being continued until the esparto is thoroughly washed, 
after which the bleaching liquor is introduced in the desired 
quantity, the washer of the poacher being raised before the 
bleach is put in. 

After remaining in the poacher usually for about two 
hours the pulp is emptied into stone chests or drainers, 
which have each a capacity for containing two engines of 
the bleached stuff, where it remains usually for about eight 
hours. 

The stone chests are commonly placed in an exposed 
position, as it is thought that the action of light assists the 
bleaching. 

The chests are supplied with two perforated zinc drainers, 
one extending up the back of the chest and connecting with 
the second, which is placed on the bottom of the drainer. 



WASH WATER. 327 

In some cases the washing and bleaching are done in the 
washing engine, in which case it is provided with two drums, 
the peripheries of which are covered with wires of different 
fineness, the coarser being used for removing the water from 
the washing and the finer for removing the excess of bleach, 
at which stage much of the pulp is so fine that it would pass 
through the coarse wire-cloth of the washer. When this 
method is employed the pulp is run directly into the beating 
engine without pressing. 

List of American Patents for Washing Engines. 

The distinction between washing engines and beating engines is so slight that 
it would be impracticable to separate the two classes, and both varieties are con- 
solidated in the " List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates" at the close 
of Chapter XIV. 

Wash Water. 

An abundance of pure, clear water is one of the first con- 
ditions in the manufacture of fine white papers ; for lower 
classes of papers, such as wrapping, etc., it is not a matter 
of such vital importance. 

When we consider that each one pound of rags or other 
material to be converted into paper will be brought in 
intimate association with from 100 to 200 times their own 
weight of w^ater, it becomes manifest that even the smallest 
proportion of certain impurities which such water may con- 
tain will result in serious injury to the pulp. 

The value of the soda, bleach liquor, alum, sulphuric acid, 
and coloring matters neutralized by impure waters aggre- 
gate an important sum of money in a short time, and every 



328 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

paper manufacturer should know the exact constituents of 
the water which he employs. 

Water is composed of the two gases, oxygen and hydro- 
gen, in the proportion by weight of 88.9 parts of the former 
and 11.1 parts of the latter, or 1 volume of oxygen to 2 
volumes of hydrogen in chemical combination. 

The composition of water can be proved analytically as 
well as synthetically, a current of electricity decomposing it 
into its constituent gases, twice as much hydrogen as oxygen, 
by volume, being produced. 

Water, when pure, is colorless (in small quantities) and 
transparent, without taste or odor, and a bad conductor of 
heat and electricity. It is slightly elastic ; under a pressure 
of 30,000 pounds to the square inch 14 volumes may be 
condensed into 13 volumes. It is 815 times heavier than 
atmospheric air, an imperial gallon weighing (at 62° F. and 
barometric pressure at 29.92 in.) 70,000 grains, or 10 pounds 
avoirdupois ; but being the standard to which the gravities 
of solids and liquids are referred, its specific weight is usually 
said to be 1.0. 

It is proper that we should give a description of the 
different sources from which natural waters are obtained, 
and also the properties of the water in each case when they 
are used in paper-making. We will divide the several 
natural waters into rain, river, and well waters, and the 
principal source of these is rain, snow, or hail. 

It is probable that rain as it leaves the clouds is almost 
pure, but in its passage through the air it absorbs certain 
gases, and carries with it small particles of organic matter 



WASH WATER. 329 

which are floatmg about in the air. The substances thus 
dissolved by the rain in its passage to the earth, ^. e., in the 
open country, are the gases, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic 
acid, a Uttle carbonate of ammonia, nitric acid, this latter 
more especially after a thunder storm, it being formed from 
ammonia and water by the passage of the electric spark 
through the air. In or near large manufacturing towns 
several other substances are found in rain water, such as 
sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., varying with 
the kind of manufacture carried on near the spot. Again, 
if rain water is collected after having fallen upon the roofs 
of houses it will be further contaminated by various sub- 
stances with which it comes in contact. Rain water from 
the absence of earthy salts is very soft, and on that account 
is preferable to hard waters. Rain, after it reaches the 
earth, soaks down into it, and during its passage through 
the various strata dissolves certain salts, etc., the quantity 
and quality of which vary with the nature of the strata with 
which it comes in contact. When this takes place on high 
ground the water percolates the strata, and very frequently 
finds an outlet at some lower point, as a spring. One or 
more of these springs is generally the source of commence- 
ment of rivers, which, as they flow on in their course, become 
increased in size by the various additions of water received 
from rain, drainage from the surface of the earth, etc. The 
springs above mentioned generally yield hard waters, that is, 
water containing earthy salts in solution, the most frequent 
of which are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, 
sulphates of lime and magnesia, common salt, and organic 



330 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

matter. These are the substances which the ram, contain- 
ing a considerable quantity of carbonic acid in solution, 
dissolves in its passage through the earth. Spring waters 
resemble well waters. The river water, receiving supplies 
from those other sources which do not contain earthy mat- 
ters, is, of course, softer than spring water. E-iver water 
usually contains from 10 to 20 or 2o grains of solid matter 
per imperial gallon of 70,000 grains. The quantity, how- 
ever, varies with the time of the year and the dryness of 
the season. Carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, sul- 
phate of lime, chloride of sodium, and organic matter are 
the substances most generally found in river water, the 
quantities per gallon and the relative proportions of the 
constituents varying according to circumstances. The hard- 
ness of water is generally determined by a solution of soap 
in proof spirit, made of such a strength that every degree 
of hardness shall be equivalent to one grain of carbonate of 
lime in a gallon. This simple method is known as Dr. 
Clark's soap test. 

In water the carbonate of lime is held in solution by the 
presence of free carbonic acid. When the water is boiled 
this carbonic acid escapes, and the carbonate of lime is de- 
posited ; and it is this deposit which forms the principal in- 
crustation in steam boilers. The removal of this carbonate 
of lime, or the greater portion of it, of course renders the 
water softer than before boiling. 

If carbonic acid gas be passed through lime-water until 
the precipitate first formed is dissolved, the resulting liquid 
is a solution of carbonate of calcium in carbonic acid water. 



WASH WATER. 331 

When the solution is boiled carbonic acid escapes, and the 
carbonate is again precipitated. 

Such an experiment will serve to show how chalk is kept 
in solution in ordinary well waters, giving the property of 
" hardness" arid the manner in which the incrustation of 
boilers is formed. It may here be stated that sulphate of 
calcium produces similar hardness, and that these, with small 
quantities of the sulphate and carbonate of magnesium, con- 
stitute the hardening constituents of well waters. 

The waters from wells differ from each other much more 
than do river waters, from the fact of the waters passing 
through different strata in different spots, and having no 
direct addition of rain water. 

Det€rmi7iation of Constituents and Hardness of Water. 

We cannot enter upon a full description of the different 
qualitative and quantitative methods for determining the 
constituents of water, but will only briefly describe a few ex- 
aminations of importance, and refer those of our readers who 
may desire more minute information, concerning methods 
and apparatus employed, to the treatises of Wanklyn and 
Frankland on Water Analysis. 

The qualitative examination of water as to its admixtures 
of iron, lime, magnesia, alkalies, chlorine combinations, sul- 
phuric and carbonic acids, the larger or smaller quantity of 
which generally determines its character, can be executed in 
the following manner : — 

1. The presence of iron can be readily discovered by the 



332 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

addition of a solution of yellow prussiate of potash to the 
water ; the iron salts will form with it Prussian blue. 

2. The chlorine combinations are shown by the formation 
of a white precipitate when treated with nitrate of silver in 
nitrate solution.^ 

3. Sulphuric acid and sulphates are recognized by the 
formation of a white precipitate with chloride of barium.^ 

4. Carbonic acid is present when the addition of clear 
lime-water gives a white precipitate. 

5. The presence of silicic acid, lime, and magnesia, by 
evaporating to dryness, with an addition of hydrochloric 
acid, in a platinum dish of a capacity of about one litre. 
The residue is taken up with hydrochloric acid and water, 
the portion remaining undissolved being silicic acid. The 
lime can be separated as calcium oxalate from the filtrate 
with ammonium oxalate. After removing the calcium oxa- 
late by filtration and evaporation of the filtrate, the magne- 
sia is precipitated with ammonium phosphate, as ammonium 
magnesium phosphate. 

6. Organic substances are shown by adding a few drops 

' Numerous apparatus containing chemical tests for water have been contrived, 
and without wishing to disparage such apparatus, it is probably best to state that 
without a knowledge of chemistry those who use them will be worse off with than 
without them. For instance, nitrate of silver is usually provided to determine 
the presence of chloride and chlorine ; but If carbonate of soda should be present 
In the water under examination, carbonate of silver would be formed as well as 
chloride. Before the nitrate of silver could be applied the water should be acidu- 
lated with nitric acid to remov6 the carbonates, and then the nitrate of silver 
would throw down the chloride. 

^ 200-300 c. c. of clear water Is heated to boiling, and then heated with a 
slight excess of solution of chloride of barium and a few drops of hydrochloric 
acid, boiled and filtered. The precipitate Is washed, Ignited, and weighed. Good 
filter-paper is essential for this determination. 



WASH WATER. 333 

of potassium permanganate and some pure sulphuric acid. 
If organic substances are present the potassium permanga- 
nate, added drop by drop, is decolorized until all the organic 
substances are completely oxidized. 

7. Determination of the entire residue. One litre is care- 
fully evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, the weight 
of which has been previously determined. The residue is 
dried at 356° F. until a decrease in weight no longer takes 
place. It not uncommonly happens that the solid residue is 
exceedingly deliquescent; in such a case it must be rapidly 
weighed. 

8. A determination of hardness with alcoholic soap solu- 
tion serves in most cases as a substitute for a quantitative 
analysis. We give, therefore, a short description of it. The 
process of determining the hardness of water by a soap solu- 
tion of a determined percentage, which was introduced by 
Clark, is a very simple one. By an addition of soap solution 
to water containing too much lime or magnesia a white pre- 
cipitate of lime or magnesia soap insoluble in water is formed 
as long as calcium or magnesium salts are present. 

A distinction is made between " total hardness"" and 
"permanent hardness." The hardness of water not boiled 
is termed total hardness, and the hardness produced by the 
earthy sulphates is termed " permanent hardness," because 
unaffected by ebullition ; the term " temporary or change- 
able hardness" being also frequently used to denote the 
hardness produced by the earthy carbonates, because re- 
movable by ebullition. 

The process of determining the total hardness is as fol- 



334 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

lows : 50 c. c. of water are measured with a pipette into a 
bottle having a capacity of about 8 ozs., and provided with 
an accurately-fitting ground stopper. Before adding the 
soap solution the free carbonic acid is removed by shaking 
the water, and then sucking out the air from the bottle 
through a glass tube. Then add from a burette or pipette 
graduated into cubic centimetres 1 c. c. of a standard solu- 
tion of soap/ shake the bottle vigorously, and repeat the 
process after each addition, the quantity of soap test being 
gradually decreased until it is added only drop by drop as 
the reaction approaches completion. When a dense, deli- 
cate lather is formed which will endure for the space of fiA'e 
minutes, the bottle being laid down on its side, then the 
operation is finished, and the quantity of soap solution must 
be accurately noted. 

The number of cubic centimetres of soap solution required 
to produce a lather being known, the degree of hardness 
can be ascertained from Table No. 1 or 2. 



' Standard Soap Solution. — To make a potash soap, which keeps well, 40 parts 
of dry potassic carbonate and 160 parts of lead plaster {Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) 
are rubbed together in a mortar until thoroughly mixed. Methylated spirit is 
then added and triturated to a cream, and after allowing to rest for a few hours, 
transfer to a filter and wash repeatedly with methylated spirit. The strength of 
this is determined by adding it to 50 c, c, of standard calcic chloride solution (the 
preparation of which will be explained) ; proceeding as in determining hardness. 
Dilute with water and alcohol until exactly 14 25 c. c, are required to form a 
permanent lather with 50 c, c. of solution of calcic chloride. The water is added 
in quantities such as to make the proportion of water to spirit as one to two. 

Standard Calcic Chloride Solution. — This may be prepared by weighing 0.2 
gram of any pure form of calcic carbonate, such as Iceland spar, into a platinum 
dish and gradually adding dilute hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved ; loss may 
be prevented by covering the dish with a clock glass. Excess of HCI is driven 
ofl" by successive evaporations to dryness, with distilled water, then re-dissolve in 
distilled water, and make up to one litre. 



WASH WATER. 



335 



C/ark's Table of Hardness — 1000 grains of Water used. 





03 
O 


5o 




s 


£ 




Ol 


■^ a 










=" a 


tg ?^ 




«« a 


t2 "" 


Degree of hardness. 


3 O 
to ai 
ca 

3J 


iflference 
next deg 
hardness 


Degree of hardness. 


o o 

to '-JS 
5 O 

CO CO 

e:3 


B-S a 




g 


O 




§ 


Q 


Distilled watei — 0... 


1.4 
3.2 


1.8 

2.2 


9 


19.4 
21 3 


1 9 


1 


lU 


1.8 
1 8 


2 


5 4 


2.2 


11 


23 1 


3 


7.6 


2 


12 


94 9 


1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.7 


4 


9 6 


2 


13 


26 7 


5 


11.6 
13 6 


2.0 
2 


14 


28.5 
30.3 
32.0 


6 


lo 


7 


i.-i.e 

17.5 


1.9 
1.9 


10 


8 









2. 


Table of Hardness in 


Parts 


per 100,000, 50 c. c. of Water used. 


d 


s . 

0,0 

0== 

cao 
0^ 


a. 
£§ 

CD 
^ to 

d 


OjO 


p. 

to 
C 3 

d 


Qj . 

cR. 
erSO 

8.71 


fa 

an 
^ +3 
p 

dS 
d 


<D . 

^§ ■ 

c^ 

oSO 


03 
d'c 

'-' CO 

d 


P.O 

1 


.7 


.00 


8.8 


4.29 


6.9 


10.0 


13.81 


13.1 


18.17 


.8 


.16 


.9 


.43 


7.0 


.86 


.1 


.46 


.2 


.33 


.9 


.82 


4.0 


.57 


.1 


9.00 


.2 


.61 


,3 


.49 


1.0 


.48 


.1 


.71 


.2 


.14 


.8 


.76 


.4 


.65 


.1 


.68 


.2 


.86 


.3 


.29 


.4 


.91 


.5 


.81 


.2 


.79 


.3 


5.00 


.4 


.48 


.5 


14.06 


.6 


.97 


.8 


.95 


.4 


.14 


.5 


.57 


.6 


.21 


.7 


19.13 


.4 


1.11 


.5 


.29 


.6 


.71 


.7 


.37 


.8 


.29 


.5 


.27 


.6 


.48 


.7 


.86 


.8 


.52 


.9 


.44 


.6 


.43 


.7 


.57 


.8 


10.00 


.9 


.68 


14.0 


.60 


.7 


.56 


.8 


.71 


.9 


,15 


11.0 


.84 


.1 


.76 


.8 


.69 


.9 


.86 


8.0 


.30 


.1 


15.00 


.2 


.92 


.9 


.82 


5.0 


6.00 


.1 


.45 


.2 


.16 


.3 


20.08 


2.0 


.95 


.1 


.14 


.2 


.60 


.3 


.32 


.4 


.24 


.1 


2.08 


.2 


.29 


.3 


.75 


.4 


.48 


.5 


.40 


.2 


.21 


.8 


.43 


.4 


.90 


.5 


.63 


.6 


.56 


.8 


.84 


.4 


.57 


.5 


11.05 


.6 


.79 


.7 


.71 


.4 


.47 


.5 


.71 


.6 


.20 


.7 


.95 


.8 


.87 


.5 


.60 


.6 


.86 


.7 


.85 


.8 


16.11 


.9 


21.03 


.6 


.73 


.7 


7.00 


.8 


.50 


.9 


.27 


15.0 


.19 


.7 


.86 


.8 


.14 


.9 


.60 


12.0 


.43 


.1 


.35 


.8 


.99 


.9 


.29 


9.0 


.80 


.1 


.59 


.2 


.51 


.9 


3.12 


6.0 


.43 


.1 


.95 


.2 


.75 


.8 


.68 


8.0 


.25 


.1 


.57 


.2 


12.11 


.3 


.90 


.4 


.85 


.1 


.38 


.2 


.71 


.8 


.26 


.4 


17.06 


.5 


22.02 


.2 


.51 


.3 


.86 


.4 


.41 


.5 


.22 


.6 


.18 . 


.3 


.64 


.4 


8.00 


.5 


.56 


.6 


.38 


rv 


.35 


.4 


.77 


.5 


.14 


.6 


.71 


.7 


.54 


.8 


.52 


.5 


.90 


.6 


.29 


.7 


86 


.8 


.70 


.9 


.69 


.6 


4.03 


.7 


.43 


.8 


13.01 


.9 


.86 


16.0 


.86 


.7 


.16 


.8 


.57 


.9 


.16 


13.0 


18.02 







336 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Clark was the first to introduce the term " degree of hard- 
ness," and in Table No. 1 each measure of soap solution = 
10 grains, and each degree of hardness = 1 grain of carbon- 
ate of lime or its equivalent of another calcium salt, or 
equivalent quantities of magnesia or magnesium salts in 
70,000 parts (= 1 gallon). 

At the present time one degree of hardness is suitably 
estimated as equal to one part of calcium oxide in 100,000 
parts of water. 

Should it be found that the quantity of soap solution 
required to produce a permanent lather exceeds 16 volumes 
of the solution to 50 of water, a second experiment would 
be necessary. In such a case a smaller quantity of the 
sample of water — even as low as 10 c. c. if the water appears 
to be very hard — to which a sufficient quantity of recently- 
boiled distilled water has been added to raise the bulk to 
the required 50 c. c. The same process is then performed 
as above described, but the number expressive of hardness 
must be multiplied by 2 or some other figure, according to 
the degree of dilution of the sample. 

For the determination of the permanent hardness, 500 
c. c. of water are gently boiled in a sufficiently large matrass 
for at least one and one-half hour, a part of the evaporated 
water being replaced by distilled water. 

While the water is boiling the steam should be allowed 
to escape freely, and precaution must be observed to prevent 
the steam from the matrass from condensing and flowing 
back into the boiling water, because the escaping carbonic 
anhydride would be dissolved by the condensed water, which 



WASH WATER. 337 

would thus be continually returned to the contents of the 
matrass m sufficient quantity to interfere with the complete 
precipitation of the carbonate of lime. The boiled water, 
when cold, is poured into a flask having a capacity of 500 
c. c, and the matrass rinsed out with distilled water, the 
rinsing being added to the water in the flask. The latter 
is then filled with distilled water up to the mark, and the 
entire contents filtered through a dry filter into a dry glass. 

The degree of hardness of a definite number of cubic centi- 
metres is then determined in the manner above described. 

The English degrees of hardness are reduced to German 
by multiplying the degrees found by 4 and dividing by 5, the 
reduction of German to English degrees being vice versa 
accomplished by multiplying by 5 and dividing by 4. 

Waters possessing the properties of hardness are unsuit- 
able without purification to be used in mills where the best 
qualities of white papers of any class are manufactured. 

Various methods for purifying water for use in paper- 
mills have been proposed, some mills using surface streams 
run their water first into large settling ponds into which it 
is admitted only when it is comparatively clear. 

Other manufacturers use filters especially manufactured 
for this purpose ; but as these filters are made in a great 
variety of ways and their virtues fully set forth in the adver- 
tising columns of various trade papers, we will not devote 
space to a description of them. 

In some mills separate filters are attached to each washing 
and beating engine. 

22 



338 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



List of Patents for P alp -iv ashing and Straining, issued by the Government 
of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




Dec. 31, 1833. 


S. A. Sweet. 


615 


Feb. 22, 1838. 


R. Carter. 


1,441 


Dec. 27, 1839. 


N. Hebbard. 


1,753 


Sept. 2, 1840. 


' 


Reissue 
171 


June 11, 1850. 


- G. Spafford. 
1 


Extended 7 years 


from Sept. 2, 1854. 


1 
J 


1,760 


Sept. 3, 1840. 


W. Dickinson. 


3,354 


Nov. 24, 1843. 


1 


Reissue 




I J. Phelps. 


196 


March 25, 1851. 


i 


4,341 


Dec. 31, 1845. 


W. Bishop. 


8,306 


Aug. 19, 1851. 


G. West. 


12,283 


Jan. 23, 1855. 


1 


Reissues 
340 


Jan. 8, 1856. 


\ H. W. Peaslee. 

1 


2,515 


March 19, 1867. 


1 
J 


28,062 


]\[ay 1, 1860. 


C. S. Buchanan. 


34,214 


Jan. 21, 1862. 


J. Piercy. 


34,945 


April 15, 1862. 


S. S. Crocker. 


44,059 


Sept. 6, 1864. 


A. Anderson. 


46,030 


Jan. 24, 1865. 


G. E. Sellers. 


46,915 


March 21, 1865. 


S. Lenher and H. H Spencer. 


54,993 


May 22, 1866. 


L. M. Wright. 


62,517 


March 5, 1867. 


AY. Adamson. 


62,942 


March 19, 1867. 


S. Curtis. 


66,258 


July 2, 1867. 


G. E. Sellers. 


79.935 


July 14, 1868. 


J. E. Andrews. 


84,850 


Dec. 8, 1868. 


G. L. Witsil. 


87,385 


March 2, 1869. 


A. S. Winchester. 


90,472 


May 25, 1869. 


R. Pt. Sylands. 


96,515 


Nov. 2, 1869. 


H. Voelter. 


99,735 


Feb. 8, 1870. 


S. W. Wilder. 


103,506 


May 24, 1870. 


C. G. Sargent. 


105,354 


July 12, 1870. 


W. H. Merrick. 


105,755 


July 26, 1870. 


A. St. C. Winchester. 


125,810 


April 16, 1872. 


G. W. Hammond and T. J. Foster, 


128,625 


July 2, 1872. 


L. HoUingsworth. 


136,002 


Feb. 18, 1873. 


H. H. Okls. 


137,696 


April 8, 1873. 


G. L. Lovtitt. 



PATENTS FOR PULP-WASHING AND STRAINING. 



339 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




140,166 


June 24, 1873. 


] 




Reissue 


Jan. 14, 1879. 


> J. Robertson. 




8,542 




) 




145,159 


Dee. 2, 1873. 


S. and J. Deacon. 




147,595 


■ Feb. 17, 1874. 


C. J. Bradbury. 




147,717 


Feb. 17, 1874. 


J. S. Warren. 




148,643 


March 17, 1874. 


A. Annandale, Jr. 




154,733 


Sept. 1, 1874. 


J. S. Warren. 




156,885 


Nov. 17, 1874. 


G. Gavit. 




165,192 


July 6, 1875. 


J. S. Warren. 




170,471 


Nov. 30, 1875. 


S. E. Crocker. 




175,286 


March 18, 1876. 


K. Hollingsworth. 




188,474 


March 20, 1877. 


G. L. Lovett. 




190,390 


May 1, 1877. 


W. C. Tuttle. 




192,107 


June 19, 1877. 


W. Blizzard and E. 


Mather. 


193,344 


July 24, 1877. 


R. A. Morton. 




194,960 


Sept. 11, 1877. 


W. H. Elliot and L. 


F. Clark, 


197,764 


Dec. 4, 1877. 


F. A. Cloudman. 




206,187 


July 23, 1878. 


E. Mather. 




206,632 


July 30, 1878. 


S. Snell. 




206,877 


Auor. 13^ 1878. 


H. Hollingsworth. 




209,326 


Oct. 29, 1878. 


G. Campbell and W. 


Lidgett. 


210,521 


Dec. 3, 1878. 


L. L. Could. 




210,612 


Dec. 10, 1878. 


J. W. Hyatt and J. 


G. Jarvis. 


210,853 


Dec. 17, 1878. 


H. Hollingsworth. 




216,243 


June 3, 1879. 


J. S. Warren. 




216,565 


June 17, 1879. 


] 




Reissue 




I J. Tyler. 




10,042 


Feb. 21, 1882. 


] 




221,221 


Nov 4, 1879. 


M. S. Drake. 




221,330 


Nov. 4, 1879. 


W. L. Longley. 




223,969 


Jan. 27, 1880. 


B. F. Warren. 




225,545 


April 13, 1880. 


C. Finder and W. A 


. Hardy. 


226,819 


April 20, 1880. 


L. Zeyen. 




230,029 


July 13, 1880. 


A. McDermld. 




230,287 


July 20, 1880. 


B. Klary. 




232,383 


Sept. 21, 1880. 


G. A. Whiting. 




234,559 


Nov. 16, 1880. 


S. L. Gould. 




234,719 


Nov. 23, 1880. 


C. Pindar and W. A 


. Hardy. 


238,126 


Feb. 22, 1881. 


H. Judson. 




235,213 


Dec. 7, 1881. 


J. Cornell. 




239,276 


March 22, 1881. 


J. M. Shew. 




235,976 


Dec. 28, 1880. 


L. Zeyen. 





340 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


239,837 


April 5, 1881. 


C. Pindar and W. A. Hardy. 


242,428 


June 7, 1881. 


C. Bremaker. 


258,209 


May 23, 1882. 


C. Anderson and T. Patten. 


262,877 


Aug. 15, 1882. 


J. and R. Wood. 


276,250 


April 24, 1883. 


N. Kaiser. 


276,596 


May 1, .1883. 


G. Kaffenberger. 


276,989 


May 1, 1883. 


S. Wrigley and J. Robertson. 


277,239 


May 8, 1883. 


P. H. Cragin. 


284,232 


Sept. 4, 1883. 


E. J. F. Quirin. 


287,164 


Oct. 23, 1883. 


H. Reinic'ke. 


310,469 


Jan. 6, 1885. 


H. Schlatter. 


313,037 


Feb. 24, 1885. 


F. Williams. 


315,420 


April 7, 1885. 


R. Kron. 


316,938 


May 5, 1885. 


F. K. Black. 


318,180 


May 19, 1885. 


W. Gray. 


325,206 


Aug. 25, 1885. 


AV. Gray. 


331,304 


Dec. 1, 1885. 


R. Kron. 



BLEACHING POWDER. 341 



CHAPTEH XL 

bleaching powder — estimation of chlorine in bleaching 

powder preparing and using the bleaching solution 

zinc bleach-liquor alumina bleach-liquor draining 

— sour bleaching — bleaching with gas — bleaching pulp 
made from old papers or imperfections bleaching 

. straw bleaching wood fibre method for bleaching 

wood, straw, etc. bleaching jute bleaching mate- 
rials composed of hemp, flax, etc.- — bleaching vegetable 

• tissues with permanganate of potash bleaching paper 

pui-p by applying the bleaching agent in a sprayed 

condition — bleaching in rotaries list of patents for 

bleaching pulp. 

Bleaching Powder. 

Bleaching powder or chloride of lime is the chemical 
which is the active agent in the bleaching processes em- 
ployed for paper pnlp. 

Numerous investigations have been made of late years to 
determine the constitution of this substance. 

Gopner,^ Richter," and Juncker,'' support the old view that 
bleaching powder is a direct compound of chlorine with lime, 
CaO.Cl2. 

On the other liand Schorlemmer states^ " that hypochlo- 

' J. pr. Chem. [2], viii. 441. ^ Dingl. poL J, ccx. 21. 

3 Ding. poL J. ccxii. 339. 

•• Deut. Cheni. Ges. Ber. vi. 1509; Chem. Soc. Journ. [2], xii. 335. 



342 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

rous acid is very easily obtained by distilling bleaching pow- 
der with the requisite quantity of nitric acid, a colorless 
distillate being thereby produced, which bleaches much more 
strongly than recently prepared chlorine water, and when 
shaken up with mercury yields a considerable quantity of 
brown mercuric oxychloride.^ 

" The fact that when bleaching powder is exhausted with 
successive small quantities of water, the last extracts still 
contain calcium and chlorine in the proportions required by 
the formula, CaOCl2, merely shows that the product of the 
action of chlorine on lime is not a mixture of calcium chlo- 
ride and hypochlorite (CaCl2 + CaCl202), but a compound 

f CI 
constituted according to the formula, Ca I , as first sug- 

(. Oul 

gested by Olding. 

" In the preparation of aqueous hypochlorous acid by the 
action of chlorine on water containing calcium carbonate in 
suspension, the compound just mentioned is first formed and 
then decomposed according to the equation : — 

Ca<^ ^^, + Cl2=CaCl2+Cl20." 
1 OCl 

The experiments of Kingzett^ and of Kopfer^ corroborate 
this view of the constitution of bleaching powder. 

The results of the experiments of these two chemists show 
that bleaching powder contains either a mixture of calcium 
chloride and hypochlorite, or the compound CaCl(OCl). 

The production of hypochlorous acid is explained equally 

' Gmelin's Handbook, vi. 60. ^ Cliem. Soc. Journ. [2], xiii. 404. 

^ Chem. Soe. Journ. [2], xiii. 713. 



BLEACHING POWDER. 343 

well by both Kingzett and Kopfer and satisfactorily accounts 
for tlie formation of bleaching powder by the action of chlo- 
rine iipon calcium hydroxide. " One atom of chlorine first 
replaces the group OH, which combines in the nascent state 
with the hydrogen atom of another hydroxyl to form water, 
whilst the second atom of chlorine goes into the place of the 
hydrogen atom thus removed." 

Sometimes bleaching powder becomes injured by packing 
it too quickly after it has been manufactured, and in such 
cases, especially on hot summer days, it is liable to decompo- 
sition, and sometimes so quickly as to become worthless in a 
few hours. 

Bleaching powder should be used as fresh as it is possible 
to obtain it, as it hndergoes alteration by keeping, the loss 
of active chlorine being greater in summer than in winter. 
The rooms in which bleaching powder and the bleach solu- 
tion are stored should be kept dark and moderately cool. 

" Bleaching powder ought to be a pure white powder, 
which in the case of a strong article is mixed with lumps ; 
but these on crushing ought to show just the same properties 
as the powder ; they ought to be completely transformed, 
and not to contain a core of lime. These lumps are some- 
times removed by riddling. In the air, bleach gradually 
• attracts moisture and carbonic acid, and finally deliquesces 
to a pasty mass. It has a peculiar smell, different from that 
of chlorine, and usually ascribed to hypochlorous acid set 
free by the carbonic acid of the air ; but this cannot be so, 
as bleach solutions to which an excess of alkali has been 
added exhale the same smell, even after boiling and cooling 



344 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

in an atmosphere free from carbonic acid (Winclder, Dingl. 
Journ., cxcviii. 149)/ Mixed with a httle water, bleach 
forms a stiff paste, -with a perceptible rise of temperature ; if 
ground up with more water, most of it enters into solution 
(according to Fresenius first the calcium chloride), but 
there always remains a considerable residue, consisting 
chiefly of calcium hydrate, containing some bleaching 
chlorine, which can only be washed out by a very large 
amount of water. The aqueous solution has a faintly alka- 
line reaction, the smell of bleaching powder, and a peculiar 
astringent taste. This solution is almost exclusively em- 
ployed in bleaching, as the residue would contaminate the 
paper-pulp, the fabric, etc., and even locally destroy them. 
M. F. Hodges has proved that after complete washing the 
insoluble residue of bleaching powder is quite harmless. 

" Bleaching powder decomposes gradually, even in the 
absence of air, as is proved by the instance communicated by 
Hofmann of the explosion of a tightly stoppered bottle, also 
in well-packed and protected casks — but especially under 
the influence of air and light. Sometimes the decomposi- 
tion takes place quite suddenly, but only when warm bleach 
has been packed in hot summer weather. The shaking in a 
railway truck or a wagon also injures it more than quiet 
lying in a dark dry place. Hence the strength of bleach is 
nearly always guaranteed only at the place of shipment ; 



' According to Phipson (' Compt. Rend.' Ixxxvi. p. 1196), sulphuretted hydro- 
gen passed over bleaching powder causes the production of a smell of free chlorine : 
first hypochlorous acid is formed; and this with H^S decomposes into H.^O,S, 
and CI. 



BLEACHING POWDER. 345 

but bleach shipped with 35 per cent, in England ought still 
to show at Hamburgh or New York 33 or at least 32 per 
cent. Pattinson ('Chem. News,' xxix. p. 143) examined the 
speed at which bleaching powder loses its available chlorine. 
In the course of twelve months the strength of the following 
examples of bleach was lowered — 





Ai 


A^ 


As 


Bi 


B^ 


B3 


Ci 


C, 


C3 


from 


28.7 


37.4 


37.1 


3-2.9 


35.2 


36.7 


31.8 


37.6 


3 7.6 


to 


20.8 


31.2 


30.2 


22.2 


27.9 


28.0 


26.4 


28.2 


32.3 



"The samples A, B, and C were taken from different 
works, but the three numbers of each letter from the same 
chamber in different stages of saturation. The average loss 
of chlorine in the first three months, from February to 
April, was 0.33 per cent, per month ; from June to Septem- 
ber, 86 per cent, per month; from November to January, 
0.28 per cent, per month. The greatest loss occurred in 
August, viz., on the average 1.4 per cent. ])er month. The 
monthly loss of chlorine on an average of the whole year 
was in maxima 0.90, in minimo 0.50, average 0.63 per cent. 
It is very noteworthy that weak (28.7 per cent.) bleach lost 
strength quite as rapidly as the strong (37 per cent.), which 
contradicts the formerly general assumption. Pattinson's 
observations were made with samples kept in loosely corked 
bottles sheltered from direct sunlight; possibly bleach 
packed in good casks may behave somewhat differently. 
Dullo ('Wagner's Jahresb.,' 1865, p. 253) showed that 
bleaching powder continually gives off oxygen. At a 
lower temperature slowly and gradually, at a higher one 
quickly; but his suggestion (impracticable in any case) that 



346 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

no bleach should be made above 30 per cent, is shown to 
be useless by Pattinson's experiments."^ 

Estimation" of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder. 

Bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, is an important 
chemical in a paper-mill, and while it is possible to have 
the powder tested by analytical chemists still it is desirable 
that the manager of a mill should be able to make the tests 
and to quickly discover whether the material with which 
the proprietor is supplied is of the desired quality. 

Bleaching powders are usually quoted as on the spot 
or to arrive, and 32 per cent, is considered the standard 
strength by the trade, and powders of less strength should 
not be accepted as good delivery. 

There are various methods for the volumetric estimation 
of chlorine in bleaching powder, which contains hypochlo- 
rite of lime, chloride of calcium, and hydrate of lime. 

The latter two ingredients are for the most part combined 
with one another to basic chloride of calcium. Fresenius^ 
states : In freshly prepared and perfectly normal chloride 
of lime the quantities of hypochlorite of lime and chloride 
of calcium present stand to each other in the proportion of 
their equivalents. When such chloride of lime is brought 
into contact with dilute sulphuric acid the whole of the 
chlorine it contains is liberated in the elementary form, in 
accordance with the following equation: — 
CaO,C10 + CaCl-f- 2(HO,S03)== 2(CaO,S03) + 2HO + 2Cl. 

' Lunge, Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, vol. iii. p. 172 et seq. 
* Pages 504 et seq. 



ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE IN BLEACHING POWDER. 347 

On keeping chloride of lime, however, the proportion be- 
tween hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium gradu- 
ally changes — the former decreases, the latter increases. 
Hence from this cause alone, to say nothing of original 
difference, the commercial article is not of uniform quality, 
and on treatment with acid gives sometimes more and some- 
times less chlorine. 

As the value of bleaching powder depends entirely upon the 
amount of chlorine set free on treatment with acids, chemists 
have devised various simple methods of determining the 
available amount of chlorine in any given sample. These 
methods have collectively received the name of Chlorimetry. 
We describe from the authority above quoted the best in use. 

The preparation of the solution of the bleaching powder 
to be tested is prepared best in the following manner: — 

Weigh 10 grams, triturate finely with a little w^ater, 
add gradually more water, pour the liquid into a litre flask, 
triturate the residue again with water, and rinse the con- 
tents of the mortar carefully into the flask; fill the latter to 
the mark, shake the milky fluid, and examine it at once in 
that state, i. e., without allowing it to deposit; and every 
time before measuring off a fresh portion shake again. The 
results obtained with this turbid solution are much more 
constant and correct than when, as is usually recommended, 
the fluid is allowed to deposit, and the experiment is made 
with the supernatant clear portion alone. The truth of this 
may readily be proved by making two separate experiments, 
one with the decanted clear fluid, and the other with the 
residuary turbid mixture. Thus, for instance, in an experi- 



348 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

ment made in my own (Fresenius's) laboratory, the decanted 
clear fluid gave 22.6 of chlorine, the residuary mixture 25.0, 
the uniformly mixed turbid solution 24.5. 1 cubic centi- 
metre of the solution of chloride of lime so prepared corre- 
sponds to 0.01 gram chloride of lime. 

A. Penofs Metliod} 

This method is based upon the conversion of arsenious 
acid into arsenic acid ; the conversion is effected in an 
alkaline solution. Iodide of potassium-starch paper is 
employed to ascertain the exact point when the reaction is 
completed. 

a. Preparation of the Iodide of Potassium- Star cli Paper. 
■ — The following method is preferable to the original one 
given by Penot : — 

Stir 3 grms. of potato starch in 250 c. c. of cold water, 
boil with stirring, add a solution of 1 grm. iodide of potassium 
and 1 grm. crystallized carbonate of soda, and dilute to 500 
c. c. Moisten strips of fine white unsized paper with this 
fluid and dry. Keep in a closed bottle. 

b. Preparation of the Solution of Arsenious Acid. — Dis- 
solve 4.436 grms. of pure arsenious acid and 13 grm. pure 
crystallized carbonate of soda in 600-700 c. c. water with 
the aid of heat, let the solution cool, and then dilute to 1 
litre. Each c. c. of this solution contains 0.004436 grm. 
arsenious acid, which corresponds to 1 c. c. chlorine gas of 
0° and 760 mm. atmospheric pressure.^ 

' Bulletin de la Soci6t6 Industrielle de Mulhouse, 1852, No. 118; Ding. 
Poly. Jour. 127, 134. 
2 Penot gives the quantity of arsenious acid as 4.44 ; but Fresenius has cor- 



ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE IN BLEACHING, POWDER. 349 

As arseiiite of soda in alkaline solution is liable, when 
exposed to access of air, to be gradually converted into 
arseniate of soda, Penot's solution should be kept in small 
bottles with glass stoppers, filled to the top, and a fresh 
bottle used for every new series of experiments. 

According to Mohr the solution keeps unchanged, if the 
arsenious acid and the carbonate of soda are both absolutely 
free from oxidizable matters (sulphide of arsenic, sulphide of 
sodium, sulphite of soda). 

c. The Process. — Measure off, with a pipette, 50 c. c. of 
the solution of chloride of lime prepared according to the 
directions already given, transfer to a beaker, and from a 50 
c. c. burette, add, slowly, and at last drop by drop, the 
solution of arsenious acid, with constant stirring, until a 
drop of the mixture produces no longer a blue-colored spot 
on the iodized paper; it is very easy to exactly hit the point, 
as the gradually increasing faintness of the blue spots made 
on the paper by the fluid dropped on it, indicates the 

rected this number to 4.436, in accordance with the now received equivalents of 
the substances and specific gravity of chlorine gas after the following proportion : 
70.92 (2 eq. chlorine) : 99 (3 eq. AsOg) : : 3.17763 (weight of 1 litre of chlo- 
rine gas) : x-^ X = 4.436, i. e., the quantity of arsenious acid which 1 litre of 
chlorine gas converts into arsenic acid. 

This solution is arranged to suit the foreign method of designating the strength 
of chloride of lime, viz., in chlorimetrical degrees (each degree represents 1 litre 
chlorine gas at 0° and 760 ram. pressure in a kilogramme of the substance). 
This method was proposed by Gay-Lussac. The degree may readily be con- 
verted into per cents., and vice versa, thus: A sample of chloride of lime of 00'-' 
contains 90 X 3.17763 = 28.5.986 grm. chlorine in 1000 grams or 28.59 in 100 ; 
and a sample containing 342 per cent, chlorine, is of 107.6° for 100 grm. of the 
substance contain 34.2 grm, chlorine. : 1000 grm. of the substance contain 342 

grm. chlorine, but 342 grm. chlorine = — litres = 107.6 litres. : 1000 erra. 

3.17763 ^ 

of the substance contain 107.6 litres chlorine. 



350 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

approaching termination of the reaction, and warns the 
operator to confine the further addition of the solution of 
arsenious acid to a single drop at a time. The number of 
^ c. c. used indicates directly the number of chlorimetrical 
degrees (see note), as the following calculation shows : Sup- 
pose you have used 40 c. c. of solution of arsenious acid, 
then the quantity of chloride of lime used in the experiment 
contains 40 c. c. of chlorine gas. Now the 50 c. c. of 
solution employed correspond to 0.5 grm, of chloride of lime ; 
therefore 0.5 grm. of chloride of lime contains 50 c. c. chlorine 
gas, therefore 1000 grms. contain 80,000 c. c. = 80 litres. 
This method gives very constant and accurate results. 

Preparing and Using the Bleaching Solution. 

The bleaching solution is best prepared in large wooden 
vats lined with lead, or in cisterns constructed of brick and 
cement, and furnished with suitable agitators driven by 
power. 

There should be at least two vats or cisterns in each mill ; 
but if there is sufficient room it is desirable to employ three 
cisterns in rotation, thus allowing three extracts to be made 
from the powders and insure their thorough exhaustion. 

The residuum, consisting of sand, carbonate of lime, etc., 
remaining on the bottom of the cisterns is washed out. 

The bleaching solutions are run from the cisterns into a 
suitable receiver where the liquor is kept at the required 
strength by diluting each solution until the prescribed 
specific gravity is indicated on the hydrometer, it being 



PREPARING AND USING THE BLEACHING SOLUTION. 351 

necessary that liquor in the receiver should always show 
degree of strength in order that the same quantity may be 
expected to reproduce the same results. 

After the rags, etc., have been washed and reduced to 
half-stuff in the engine, the desired quantity of liquor is 
drawn from the receiver and added to the material to be 
bleached. 

The quantity of chloride used varies according to the 
nature of the rags: 2 to 2.5 per cent, for white rags, 
while others, on the contrary, require 7 to 10 per cent.; 
chlorine gas being preferable for the latter class of rags on 
account of its greater economy. 

Gas bleaching for half-stuif is seldom resorted to in the 
United States or Great Britain, but in Russia it is almost 
indispensable for bleaching the coarse linen rags so plentiful 
in that country. 

Sometimes a fresh solution is prepared for every engine 
of pulp by placing, in a suitable receptacle, the quantity of 
powders required to bleach one engine of rags (5 to 10 
pounds per 100 pounds of paper), and after filling the re- 
ceptacle with water the contents are stirred with a paddle, 
and after sufficient time has been allowed for the liquor to 
rest it is drawn off when clear into the engine through a 
faucet placed a few inches above the bottom of the recep- 
tacle. 

A box or barrel lined with lead and having a capacity of 
from 25 to 30 gallons, and arranged on a suitable platform 
above the engine, makes a good vessel in which to prepare 
the solution; such a vessel containing 15 to 20 pounds of 



352 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

good bleaching powder will produce a solution testing 6° to 
8° B. The sediment, after drawing off the clear solution, is 
removed from the vessel, dissolved in another receptacle, 
and the weak solution thus obtained is used with the pulp 
in the next engine. 

If sufficient time is allowed the chlorine will bleach the 
pulp without the aid of an acid; but to facilitate the dis- 
engagement of the chlorine, sulphuric acid is generally 
employed, thereby shortening the time and greatly decreas- 
ing the number and capacity of the pulp receivers which 
would otherwise be required. The proportion of sulphuric 
acid employed may vary from nothing to one pound for 
every four pounds of bleaching powder, and depends upon 
the class of stock to be treated, the available draining-room, 
and time. Instead of adding the sulphuric acid of the 
ordinary strength, it is preferable to dilute with ten to 
twenty times its own weight of water. The dilution of the 
sulphuric acid should be made very carefully, as many a 
workman has lost his eyesight or been otherwise injured by 
carelessly adding sulphuric acid to water. When the acid 
has been thoroughly incorporated with the pulp it is 
emptied from the engine into a drainer, i. e., if the pulp is 
not to be at once used. 

Zinc Bleach Liquor. 

Strong acids are often objectionable for liberating chlorine 
from bleaching powder, and especially in bleaching some 
classes of paper pulp. If a solution of zinc sulphate be 



ALUMINA BLEACH LIQUOR. 353 

added to a solution of bleaching powder, calcium sulphate 
is precipitated, and the zinc hypochlorite formed at once 
splits up into zinc oxide and a solution of free hypochlorous 
acid. Zinc chloride acts similarly; for a saturated solution 
of zinc in strong muriatic acid decomposes as much bleach- 
ing powder as half its weight of concentrated oil of vitriol 
(Varrentrapp). The reaction must be — 

CaOCls + ZnCl2= CaCL + ZnO + 2C1. 

Accordingly these zinc salts can be employed in place of 
sulphuric acid and thus bleach the paper pulp very quickly. 
When this mixture is employed in bleaching paper pulp, 
the precipitated calcium sulphate and zinc oxide remain in 
the pulp. This solution was introduced by Sace (' Wagner's 
Jahresb.,' 1859, p. 548), and has been recommended by 
Varrentrapp (lb., 1860, p. 189). Lunge, 'Sulphuric Acid 
and Alkali,' iii. 281. 

Alumina Bleach-Liquor. 

Orioli (^Wagner's Jahresb.,' 1860, p. 188) recommended, 
especially for paper-mills, a bleach liquor made by decom- 
posing equivalent quantities of a^ solution of bleaching 
powder and aluminum sulphate; this had been known for 
several years as Wilson's bleach liquor. Gypsum is thrown 
down and aluminum hypochlorite remains dissolved. This 
is very unstable, and hence can be employed for bleaching 
without adding an acid, splitting up into aluminium chloride 
and active oxygen. Consequently the liquid always remains 
neutral, and the difficulty caused by the obstinate retention 

23 



354 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

of free acid in the fibre by which it is strongly acted upon 
on drying, in this case does not exist. The alumininm 
chloride also acts as an antiseptic, so that the paper stock 
can be kept for many months without any fermentation or 
other decomposition. The solution is allowed to act for 
about ten minutes in the engine. Lunge, 'Sulphuric Acid 
and Alkali,' iii. 281. 

Draining. 

The drainers are best constructed of brick and cement, 
and they can be built so as to allow the pulp to be removed 
from the open top or through a door near the bottom. 

The open-top drainers are usually about five or six feet 
deep, and are arranged in rows conveniently near the 
beaters; the pulp being shovelled out by a workman who 
throws it on a platform which should be on about a level 
with the engine-room, whence it is carried on trucks to the 
beaters. 

When the pulp is removed from the bottom of the 
drainers their height is not restricted, and they can be built 
at any convenient point below the floor of the engine-room, 
and in some mills they are placed directly below the 
engines. The doors at the bottom of such drainers should 
be of sufficient size to allow the workmen to pass in and out, 
and so arranged as to be conveniently opened and closed. 
Sufficient room must also be allowed at the bottom for run- 
ning the trucks on which the pulp is carried to the hoists. 
The walls of the drainers should be carefully built and then 



DRAINING. 355 

plastered with cement; the thickness of the walls being 
sufRcient to resist the pressure of a body of liquid as large 
as the drainers will hold. 

The bottoms of the drainers are perforated to . permit the 
escape of the water. The perforated bottoms of these screens 
or drainers have hitherto been made in many different ways, 
all of which have been found subject to serious objection in 
practical use. In some instances difficulty was experienced 
from the liability of the holes or perforations to become 
clogged or closed by the wet material. In other cases diffi- 
culty arose from the fact that the strainers were made of 
metal, the oxidation of which caused a discoloration of the 
stock. These difficulties are largely overcome by making 
the strainer of tile and providing it with perforations of a 
flaring or conical form larger at the bottom than at the top, 
and in supporting the tile thus made by beams or bars, of 
tile or concrete, which, like the tile, are free from liability of 
oxidation. 

Fig. 114 represents respectively a plan view of an improved 
tile strainer, a cross section of the same, and a top-plan 
view, illustrating the manner of constructing the floor or 
bottom of the drainer. It is the invention of Mr. Samuel 
Snell, of Springfield, Mass. 

The tiles A are made of any suitable clay or composition, 
of a flat and regular form, and provided with numerous ver- 
tical openings or perforations, c, the lower ends of which are 
larger than the upper. 

In constructing the drainer it is provided at the bottom 
with a series of longitudinal bars or supports, B, made of 



356 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



tile or concrete, and arranged parallel with each other at 
suitable distances apart. Upon these beams the tiles A are 
arranged in such manner as to form a continuous unbroken 
floor to support the paper-stock. The perforations c permit 



r- 



Fio; 114. 



e 


o 




"c 


o 




"c^ 


Oc 




o 


"^ 


°C- 




o 





'^ 




o 


c 


o 


J.^ 


"C 


%- 




o 


° 



mmm 



^ 



mWMWM 



m .m ^M.^ ■¥ ^ ^\ 


p O <) 

i <<- ° gs 1 

^o Wl 
y o o, <j 


boob 

p Oe^ ♦> 
, <t c o , 
p O Oc, t> 
, o^ ol 
poo. 


p O <^ 

. otf. o 8. 

t Oc_ <i 


b o o 1 
' oe c^o 1 
boon 


-f : r 

1 fc O o 1 

* o o„ * 

; °^ o s^ 1 

o o o 

1 Oc O O^l 
6 o ^ d 


C.O o i 

1 O O <LO ' 

b o o i 

; cF p o 1 

i, (f- i 
; oc o o ' 
[ o o.A 


fc o o c) 

' ^"^ ° °<=!i 

4 o <J 

1 0^ o 

pood 

; o o o=i 


b o c* 
1 oc o^ o 1 

I.- "/. 

D o o 4 

1 O o 1 

h - » { 


i^'-^ -b 


.1^ i 


^'i-^ _u 


H^ 1 



the water to flow from the stock, and, owing to their conical 
form, avoid the danger of the material which may enter their 
upper ends lodging within them. 

If it is desired to save the bleach liquor, which is a ques- 
tionable economy where only rags are worked, it is allowed 
to run into a "junk" or reservoir placed below the bottom 
of the drainers, whence it is pumped into an upper receiver 
to be strengthened, or to be employed for preliminary 
bleaching. In order, however, to save the fibres which 



SOUR BLEACHING. 357 

escape with the liquor from the drainers it is desirable to 
run the waste liquor into a cistern where the fibres can be 
deposited. Scrupulous cleanliness should be the rule in 
this as in every department of the mill, and stuff which may 
fall upon the floor and become soiled should be thrown in a 
box provided for that purpose ; all trucks, boxes, etc., used 
in the drainers should be periodically washed and kept in a 
cleanly condition, and the floor should be washed each day. 
In order to economize in time and capital, various methods 
have been tried to quickly drain the pulp by mechanical 
means, and one of the most acceptable methods for extract- 
ing the water from the stuff is by the centrifugal drainer, 
which is similar in construction to that used for drying 
cloth. 

Sour Bleaching. 

This method of bleaching may be conducted partly or 
wholly in the drainers, those of good height and large 
capacity being best suited for this process. 

The stuff should be emptied from the engines into the 
drainers where it should be kept packed closely around the 
sides, as the stuff shrinks away as the water drains off. 

The bleach solution is admitted at the top of the drainers 
in sufficient quantities to saturate the entire body of stuff, 
and then the largely-diluted vitriol solution is admitted in a 
short time after the bleach solution. 

The strength and quantity of each of the solutions neces- 
sary for different classes and quantities of pulp are soon 
ascertained by practical experience. 



358 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

This method of bleaching may be modified in a great 
variety of ways ; some manufacturers add the acid sokition 
first and the bleach solution afterwards ; others add one-half 
of the bleach solution in the engine and then empty the 
stuff in the drainers, and after running in the acid solution 
they then admit to the stuff in the drainers the remaining 
one-half of the bleach solution. 

This process is manifestly not suited for bleaching fine 
stuffs, as its operation cannot be watched in its different 
stages, and some portions of the material are liable to come 
from the drainers in an unbleached condition. 

Bleaching with Gas. 

The process of bleaching with gas can be conducted in 
the same kind of drainers in which the process of sour 
bleaching is carried on. 

When the half-stuff is emptied from the washing engine 
into the drainers the water immediately commences to leave 
it ; but as it would require a long time for the stuff to become 
sufficiently dry in the drainers to be bleached with gas, a 
centrifugal drainer is commonly employed, or the pulp is 
run over the wet machine. 

In order to achieve satisfactory results with gas-bleached 
half-stuff, it is necessary that it should be neither too dry nor 
too moist. A good method of testing the condition of the half- 
stuff for gas bleaching is to squeeze samples of it between 
the hands; if the pressure should cause no water to escape 
and the samples still possess a damp appearance, the material 



BLEACHING WITH GAS. 359 

may be considered to be in a suitable condition to be bleached 
with gas. 

"The method of bleaching is as follows: Put 1600 pounds 
of half-stuff, in the condition mentioned above, loosely into 
a stone chamber, and seal it in such a manner that it will be 
perfectly air tight. Into the lead retort connected with this 
chamber by leaden pipes, pour 3 pails of water and 66 pounds 
of common salt; stir thoroughly, and add 65 pounds of manga- 
nese ; stir again, and close the retort. Next charge a leaden 
vessel with 119 pounds of vitriol and allow the acid to drop 
through a bell-mouthed bent siphon into the retort contain- 
ing the mixture of manganese, salt, and water, three hours 
being allowed for the vitriol to drop into the retort. 

"The retort is then heated to 212° F. with steam for 
several hours, and two hours are allowed for the gas to 
escape up the mill chimney. For fine stuff, such as 
willow-rope, one hour extra must be allowed for the escape 
of the gas." 

Chlorine gas may be prepared either with sulphuric or 
hydrochloric acid, the relative cost of these two acids deter- 
mining which should be employed. 

The proportions of the ingredients to be employed are not 
absolute, as they must vary with the composition of the 
manganese and the strength of the acid used. When sul- 
phuric acid is employed the proportions may be about as 
follows : — 

Manganese ...... 1 part. 

Common salt 0.5 to 2 parts. 

Sulphuric acid . . . . .2 parts. 
Water 2 " 



360 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

When hydrochloric acid is employed for preparing the 
gas, 3 parts of the acid and 1 part of manganese are simply 
used. Lump manganese is preferable to the powdered man- 
ganese, on account of the slower action of the acid on the 
latter, which also requires agitation to effect a mixture of 
the two substances. 

The chlorine gas in escaping from the retort carries with 
it some hydrochloric acid, which, if allowed to escape into 
the half-stuff, would injure the strength of the fibres. There 
are various methods of freeing the gas from this acid; one 
of the simplest means adopted for attaining this object 
being to lead the pipe which conveys the gas from the 
retort into a receiver containing a small quantity of water. 
"The pipe should be allowed to enter only a few lines 
below the surface of the water, in order that the height of 
the column of liquid may not exercise a sensible pressure 
in opposition to the escape of the gas. The bubbles of gas 
give up their particles of hydrochloric acid at the contact 
of the water, which mechanically washes them away." 

In order to impart greater brilliancy to their stuffs, some 
manufacturers bleach with chlorine gas, and then with liquid 
chlorine, which method by the employment of a smaller 
quantity of gas diminishes the danger of excessive action 
upon the fibres. 

The waste from bleaching varies, of course, with the 
different classes of rags; for fine whites it ranges from 1.5 to 
3.5 per cent., and for coarse rags and thirds the loss is from 
3 to 8 per cent. 



bleaching straw. 361 

Bleaching Pulp made from old Papers or 
"Imperfections." 

The pulp made from old papers or imperfections is 
bleached in the same manner as rags. The manipulation 
of the pulp in the engine during the bleaching process 
depends upon the class of paper which is to be produced ; 
the whole bleaching process can be finished in one engine 
if only one class of " imperfections" are to be made into a 
low grade of paper ; but if the pulps of different kinds of 
old papers are to be mixed, and the best quality of paper 
produced, the bleached pulp should be emptied from the 
engines into the drainers. 

Bleaching Straw. 

The bleaching of straw pulp is done in about the same 
manner as rags are bleached, the only difference being that 
a larger proportion of chemicals is required. Some manu- 
facturers commence the bleaching with gaseous chlorine, 
but the process must always be terminated with the chloride 
of lime; otherwise the pulp would be reddish. 

The proportion of bleaching powder required for bleach- 
ing straw varies from 12 to 25 pounds of bleaching powder 
and a corresponding proportion of yitriol to every 100 
pounds of paper made entirely from straw. 

In order to obtain a satisfactory result from straw pulp it 
is imperative that the boiling should be properly done, as it 
is false economy to curtail the quantity of soda used in the 
digester, and then be compelled to force the bleaching by 



362 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the employment of an excess of chemicals which weaken 
the fibres. 

Thorough washing out and neutralization of the alkali is 
also necessary after boiling straw, and if these points receive 
proper attention much of the trouble usually experienced 
in bleaching straw pulp may be obviated. 

Care must be observed to thoroughly wash out the 
drainers with clear water in order to carry away all the 
hydrochloric acid, which imparts a disagreeable yellowish- 
gray color to the pulp. 

The bleach solution should not, if sulphuric acid has 
been used, be allowed to remain for a protracted period in 
contact with the pulp ; it should not only be drained as 
quickly as possible, but it has been recommended to also 
empty the bleacher with a larger quantity of water, and thus 
to soak and wash the white pulp immediately in the drainers. 

The waste bleach liquor quickly parts with its chlorine 
when exposed to the action of the air, and consequently if 
the liquor which escapes from the drainers is to be again 
used, it is best to add it to the gray pulp in the washing- 
engine, and employ it as a preliminary bleacher, and then 
wash it out again, for if the waste bleach liquor is allowed 
to become transformed into hydrochloric acid through too 
long contact with the air the injury which it will inflict 
upon the color and strength of the fibres will be irreparable. 

Bums' s Bleaching Process for Straw, etc. 

On page 231 we gave a description of Burns's process 
for boiling and disintegrating straw, and in Fig. 115 is shown 



BLEACHING STRAW. 



363 



a vertical section of the apparatus in which the bleaching of 
the straw is conducted. 



FiiT. 115. 



''^yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyM^y.'T^^^X 



^^k'.^^^.■^■.^■^-.^.^^■-^■.'^'.■^^^t^ 



f7/M/////////^^yy^yyy^ 



^ 



,<■.■.■,<.■-. ^^,l.^.^-^^■V.K^.■^^^-.<^'JJg■?;^?^ 



P represents a tank or tub, preferably of wood, in which 
is placed a quantity of water and chloride of lime. It is 
provided with a steam-pipe, R, entering the tub at the bot- 
tom, so that the entire contents may be impregnated. By 
this means the chlorine gas is eliminated from the solid 
particles, and it passes (together with a quantity of vapor 
and water charged with the gas) into tub Q^ by means 
of pipe S, where it enters at the bottom. In this tub 
Q the paper stock to be bleached is placed, and the chlo- 
rine, entering the stock or pulp from the bottom, filters 
through to the top, where it passes off. It will be seen that 
by this construction no solid particles or bleaching-matter 
touches the pulp. Where the bleaching material itself is 
placed in the tub with the pulp it rots it and makes it brittle 
when made into paper. 

Straw-board heretofore made by the existing processes is 
usually extremely brittle; but by Burns's process it is claimed 



364 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

that the fibre of the straw is not destroyed, nor is the pulp 
made brittle by the introduction of solid particles of lime, 
caustic alkali, and the like into the bleaching tub, thereby 
eliminating and destroying also the albumen and gluten 
properties of straw, which are essential to the proper making 
of straw paper. 

Bleaching Wood Fibre. 

There are numerous methods of bleaching the ^various 
kinds of wood fibre. The bleaching engine is similar to the 
common rag-washing engine with the difference that it has 
no plate or sand catcher. The engine is filled about two- 
thirds full with warm water and the necessary proportion of 
bleach liquor. The rolls of fibre, which, having been run 
over the wet machine, resemble paper, are supplied to the 
engine in sufficient quantities to nearly fill it, after which 
the steam is turned on and the contents of the trough are 
heated to about 210° F. If the fibre has not been sufficiently 
bleached more bleach liquor is added, and when the desired 
color is obtained the cylinder washer is lowered and the cold 
water is turned on. After it is cooled a little the whole is 
emptied into the drainers and the liquid is allowed to drain 
off". 

Another method of bleaching is to treat the fibre substan- 
tially the same as just indicated, to neutralize the excess of 
chlorine with antichlore, and run the fibre over a wet machine, 
thus dispensing with drainers. This is an improvement, but 
it is nevertheless crude and imperfect. (' The Paper Trade 
Journal,' xiv. p. 43.) 



BLEACHING WOOD FIBRE. 365 

Wood fibre, excepting chemically prepared wood-pulp, 
will not bleach whiter than a light-yellow or cream color by 
the chlorine process without decomposition, and partial or 
entire destruction of fibre taking place. 

Mr." Goldsbury H. Pond, of Glenn's Falls, N. Y., has 
patented a process in which he uses metallic oxides with 
chlorine or any other substance or solution that will yield 
oxygen by the action of these metallic oxides, depending 
entirely in this ^Drocess upon the generation of oxygen in 
contact with the material to be bleached, either in air or in 
a bath of any substance which may be compatible with a 
bleaching operation, and which is capable of yielding up its 
oxygen through the agency of a metallic oxide. 

In this solution wood-pulp or any other fibrous material 
to be bleached is thoroughly wet or mixed therein, thereby 
bringing into a close and positive contact the material to be 
bleached and the innumerable points of generation of the 
oxygen. 

To accomplish these results there is prepared a bath of a 
weak solution or mixture of any metallic oxide mixed with 
water, such as the oxide of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, 
or cobalt. The inventor prefers the oxide of iron and zinc 
to all others. 

In using the oxides they are mixed with water, and are 
then thoroughly mixed with the material being bleached, so 
that the fibres thereof are completely covered with it, the 
metallic particles being deoxidized and oxidized to an un- 
limited extent, thereby developing a large quantity of 
oxvffen. 



366 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

In bleaching wood pulp and any other material of a fibrous 
nature — such as hemp, jute, flax, cotton, or the waste of any 
of these — for the manufacture of paper, take the common 
bleaching tank or engine now in general use in paper-mak- 
ing, fill it partly full with water and with the metallic oxides 
mixed therein in the proportions of one pound of the oxide 
to one hundred pounds of the material to be bleached, this 
proportion being varied according to the amount of oxygen 
required ; then add a quantity of the solution of either chlo- 
ride of lime or chlorine water, or any other solution capable 
of yielding oxygen by the action of the metallic oxides. 
Then fill the tank or the engine to its working capacity with 
the wood pulp, heating with steam to nearly the boiling point. 
The beating-roll by its revolution thoroughly mixes the pulp 
with the solutions of chlorine or chloride of lime and the 
metallic oxides therein, when by the action of the heat large 
volumes of oxygen are produced within the mass of the 
pulp and in contact with each fibre thereof, and as the oxy- 
gen is generated the bleaching is immediately effected. 
After the bleaching is completed the whole mass of the wood 
pulp is acidulated with dilute acid, decomposing the oxides, 
which are then washed out in combination with the acid, 
leaving the pulp clean, and it is claimed perfectly white. 

Chlorine gas or water saturated with chlorine, or any solu- 
tion susceptible of yielding oxygen by the action of the 
metallic oxides, may be used and mixed in the same manner 
as before described, with the pulp, water, and oxides in the 
bleaching engine, and treated in the same manner, and when 
heated the same results it is claimed will follow, and a large 



METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 367 

volume of oxygen will be generated, and when in contact 
with various fibrous materials and the wood pulp bleaching 
it to a permanent white in a few minutes. 

To accelerate the process of bleaching, more metallic oxide 
can be added at any time during the operation. 

It is a well-known fact that in the use of chlorine when it 
is heated it leaves its solution and goes off into the air. In 
this process the oxygen is not formed and the bleaching is 
not accomplished unless heat is applied and the chlorine or 
other solution or mixture containing oxygen brought into 
contact with the metallic oxide. The nearer to, but under, 
the boiling-point this process is operated the more volumi- 
nous will be the generation of the oxygen, and the more 
efficient and immediate will be its bleaching properties. 

Method for Bleaching Wood, Straw, etc. 

In the manufacture of white paper from wood, straw, etc., 
it is of great importance, after such stock has been boiled in 
an alkaline solution, that the pulp thus produced should be 
thoroughly cleansed from the alkali and saccharine or glu- 
tinous matters remaining in it before the pulp is subjected 
to the action of chlorine for bleaching it for white paper. 
After the stock has been bleached with chlorine, it is 
equally important that all traces of the chlorine be removed 
from the pulp before it is run out on the paper-machine 
into any white paper. 

It is a fact well known to the best paper-makers that 
the more thoroughly the pulp is cleansed from alkali and 



388 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

glutinous matter remaining in it after it has been boiled, the 
less chlorine it takes to produce a given shade of white, and 
it is equally well known that the action of the chlorine 
tends to weaken and destroy the fibre, and that the less 
chlorine used, the stronger and more pliable is the paper 
produced from straw and like fibrous material. Hence the 
necessity of a thorough washing or cleansing of the pulp 
before it is bleached, as well as afterward. 

Another fact is, that the longer the stock is allowed to 
remain in the pulpy state after being bleached, before the 
chlorine is washed out, the more hard, crisp, and brittle is 
the paper produced; hence it is of importance that such 
fibrous material be bleached quickly, and the chlorine im- 
mediately washed out. 

Still another fact, but one not generally known, is that, 
if a certain amount of chlorine is to be used for bleaching 
a certain amount of stock, if, instead of using the whole 
quantity of chlorine at one time, a portion only is used to 
bleach the stock, and the stock then dried sufficiently to 
be handled, and the chlorine washed out, and then the 
remaining chlorine used to rebleach the stock, a much whiter 
and cleaner paper is produced. 

For example, if twenty pounds of chlorine are to be used 
to bleach one hundred pounds of pulp, instead of using all 
the chlorine in one operation, first use, say, fifteen pounds 
to bleach the one hundred pounds of pulp, and then, after 
thoroughly washing the pulp, use the remaining five pounds 
of chlorine to rebleach the whole quantity of pulp. But, 



METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 369 

to perform these operations in mills as now constructed 
would require a great amount of extra time and labor. 

As usually practised in the best paper-mills in the 
country, the pulp, as it comes from the boilers, is placed 
in an ordinary rag engine, and partially washed. It is then 
emptied into a tank or stufF-chest, and drawn off, by means 
of a pump, to the mixing-box of an ordinary wet-paper 
machine, where it is mixed with the water extracted from 
pulp previously passed through the machine. 

The pulp thus mixed is then passed through the screen 
or pulp-dresser and onward to the wire-gauze cylinder, if 
a cylinder machine is used, where the water is partially 
extracted and carried off through the cylinder and the pulp 
thereby formed into wet paper on the surface of the cylinder, 
and from whence it is taken off by the " wet felt." 

The wet machine has been in use for the purpose of 
running out straw and wood-pulp, and removing uncooked 
portions of the pulp as it passes through the screen or 
pulp-dresser, a small portion of the alkali and saccharine 
matter being also incidentally removed as the wet paper 
passes through between the press rolls. 

In carrying out a process used by one of our most suc- 
cessful paper manufacturers there is made use of, among 
other devices, the ordinary wet machine, with certain im- 
provements. 

These improvements consist, first, in allowing the water 
which passes through into the perforated cylinder to run 
off to waste, carrying with it, of course, the alkali and 
saccharine matter held in solution, and, second, in keeping 

24 



370 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

up the supply of water necessary to work the pulp through 
the screen or dresser, and to form the paper on the cylinder, 
by discharging fresh, clean water into the receiving vat or 
mixing trough, and an additional supply of clean water into 
the pulp after it has passed the screen, but before reaching 
the cylinder, as hereafter more fully described. 

As a much larger amount of water can be passed through 
the cylinder than through the screen, the amount of water 
added to the pulp after passing the screen may be very con- 
siderable, so that, by these improvements, a much greater 
quantity of water can be washed through the pulp than 
by the old method, and consequently the pulp is more 
thoroughly cleansed. 

Fig. 116 is a top plan view of a common cylinder wet- 
paper machine, having the improvements mentioned applied. 

Fig. 117 illustrates a side view of the same, with portions 
broken away to show the interior. 

Fig. 118 shows a side elevation of a train of three wet 
machines, with the accompanying bleaching tanks, stuff 
chests, etc., as arranged for carrying out the process. 

A, Figs. 116 and 117, represents a "wet machine" of the 
ordinary construction, so far as regards the general features 
of screens, vats, perforated cylinder, endless felt, press-rolls, 
etc., and in which a represents the receiving vat for the 
pulp; h the screen or pulp dresser; c the vat which re- 
ceives the pulp passing through the screen ; d the trough 
in which the wire-gauze cylinder is mounted, and which is 
kept filled with pulp and water ; e the gauze cylinder ; and 
/ a pipe communicating with the interior of the cylinder, 



METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 371 

and with an exhaust pump for causmg a suction inward 
through the cylinder. 

Fig. 116. 




Fig. 117. 




372 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Heretofore it has been customary to have the pipe / dis- 
charge the water exhausted through it back into the receiv- 
ing-vat a, where it became mixed with new pulp, and in 
this manner the same water was used over and over again. 

In the present machine this water is allowed to run off to 
waste, as shown, and there is provided a pipe, n, which 
discharges fresh, clean water into the receiving-vat a, to 
reduce the pulp to the required thinness. 

To one side of the machine there is attached a box, J, 
divided into two compartments by means of a vertically 
adjustable gate, ^, having an opening, 7i, through it, as 
shown in Figs. 116 and 117. 

One compartment of the box J is provided with a hole, ?', 
communicating with the vat c, and the other compartment 
is provided at its bottom with a waste-pipe, j\ and there is 
also arranged a water-supply pipe, /<:, so as to discharge into 
the compartment which is connected with the vat, as shown 
in Figs. 116 and 117. 

Water being discharged through the pipe h into box J", a 
portion flows through the hole i into vat c, and the remainder 
through gate g and off through waste-pipe j. 

By adjusting the gate (/, the water may be maintained at 
any desired height in the box, and as the box has free com- 
munication with th^ vat, the level of the pulp in the latter 
is always the same as that of the water in the former, so 
that, by adjusting the gate g, the level of the pulp may be 
varied as desired. 

As the gate is raised and lowered, the quantity of water 
which flows into the vat is also varied. 



METHOD ,,FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 



373 



By this arrangement of parts it is possible to work a very 
large quantity of water through the machine with the pulp, 
so as to thoroughly dissolve and wash out all alkali and 
saccharine matters, ink, chlorine, and other foreign matters, 
which are carried oiF with the water through the cylinder e. 
, In the old styles of machine, where less water could be 
worked through, the alkali and saccharine matter Were only 
partially dissplved, and the only portions that were removed 
were those that were squeezed out from the wet paper in 
passing through the press-rolls, as all that was held in solu- 
tion by the water passing through the gauze cylinder was 
returned with the water to the receiving-vat, and remixed 
with fresh pulp or stock. 

In carrying out this process there are provided two or 
more of the wet machines A, and double the number of 
bleaching-tanks B, all arranged as shown in Fig. 118, 
placing first a machine and then two tanks, side by side, and 



so on. 



Fig. 118. 




Near the first machine there is located a tank or stuff- 
chest, (7, and connected by a pump, Z>, with the receiving 
vat J., of the first machine. 

At the back end of the machine there is arranged an ele- 
vator, E^ which may be shifted so as to communicate with 
either one of the two tanks, B^ there located. 



374 TBE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Each of the tanks B is provided with a discharge-pipe, 
emptying into the receiving-vat of the second machine A^ 
and at the back end of this second machine is an elevator 
discharging into the second pair of tanks, and so on con- 
tinuously, each machine connecting with a pair of tanks, 
and these tanks with the next machine. The last tank is 
connected with either a rag engine, as shown, or with a 
tank or stuiF-chest, according to circumstances. 

In operating the train of machines, as shown in Fig. 117, 
the pulp, after being boiled and then washed in an ordinary 
rag engine for about an hour, is discharged into the tank 
G as unwashed pulp ; or, if properly boiled, the pulp may 
be taken directly from the boiler to the tank C without 
being passed through the rag engine. 

From the tank C the pulp is carried by the pump D 
to the first wet machine A^ where the pulp is thoroughly 
washed and cleansed, and freed from alkali, saccharine mat- 
ter, ink, chlorine, and other impurities contained in it. 

The pulp, in passing through the machine, is converted 
into wet paper, and in this form it is delivered to the ele- 
vator jE/, which carries the wet paper over into the first 
bleaching tank B^ which is charged with a solution of 
chlorine, and provided with stirrers or agitators for breaking 
up the paper and reducing it to the form of pulp again. 

When the first of the tanks, J5, is sufficiently charged 
with the wet paper, the elevator E is shifted so as to dis- 
charge into the adjoining tank, which is, like the first one, 
charged with chlorine, and provided with agitators. 

While the second of the tanks B is being filled, steam is 



METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 375 

admitted into the one which is full, and the contents heated 
to about 100° above the temperature of the surrounding air, 
wliich causes the chlorine to act with great rapidity. 

This is continued for about two hours, the agitators being 
kept in motion all the while, when the pulp is discharged in 
the receiving-vat of the second wet machine J.\ through which 
it is passed to wash out the chlorine and coloring matter dis- 
solved by it while in the tank B. 

This second machine again forms the pulp into wet paper, 
and then discharges it on to the second elevator E\ which 
delivers it into one of the second pair of bleaching tanks 
-B\ where it undergoes the same treatment as in the first, 
except that the chlorine solution is of only about one-third 
the strength of the first. 

The pulp is then discharged from this tank B^ to the 
third machine JL^, where it is washed from the chlorine, 
formed into wet paper, and then, by the elevator E" de- 
livered into the third tank B^^ where it is again broken up 
and reduced to pulp. 

From this third tank the pulp is discharged into an ordi- 
nary rag engine, and the coloring and sizing matter added 
to it, and then discharged into a tank or stuff'-chest, from 
whence it is delivered on to the usual paper machine, and by 
it formed into finished paper. 

It is obvious that the bleaching tanks may be located 
in the basement of the building, immediately under the 
machines, and pumps used to draw^ the pulp up from each 
tank to the next machine, and also that the last tank could 
be dispensed with, and the wet paper put into the rag 



376 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

engine by hand, but it is preferable to locate them as 
shown, for the reason that thereby hand labor is entirely 
saved, and also the cost of extra pumps. 

There are numerous advantages claimed for this process 
over the old methods, among which we mention : — 

First, a much more rapid and perfect cleansing of the 
pulp from the alkali and saccharine matter, as in the same 
length of time there is washed about ten times the quantity 
of water through it that could be done by the old method. 

Second, it requires no drainers, and therefore the labor 
required under the old method, to remove the stock from 
the drainers to the rag engine, is dispensed with, and, 
besides, in the old method, more or less of the stock was 
lost in the many handlings from drainers to cars, cars to 
rag engines, etc., and still more of it injured by dirt of 
various kinds getting into it while being thus handled. 

By the present arrangement it will be seen that the only 
handling required is in passing the stock, in the first 
instance, from the boiler to the washing engine. 

This process it is claimed produces the finest kinds of 
book paper from straw, wood, and like fibrous materials, 
with less labor, trouble, and expense than attended the pro- 
duction of common news printing paper by the old method, 
and the quality of paper that can be produced is said to be 
far superior to that made upon tlie old plan, and hence will 
conduce to the use of straw, wood, etc., for the finest paper, 
instead of the far more expensive stock formerly used. 



BLEACHING JUTE. 377 

Bleaching Esparto. 

The usual method employed in Great Britain for bleaching 
esparto has already been described on p. 325 et seq. 

Bleaching Jute. 

It is already some years since the chemists, Messrs. Cross 
and Bevan, began to study the jute fibre, yet in spite of the 
importance of their discoveries they seem not to attract the 
attention they deserve. According to the investigations of 
Messrs. Cross and Bevan, jute does not contain cellulose 
under the ordinary conditions, but in the form of one of 
several ethers of the cellulose, which they comprise under 
the denomination of bastose. While cellulose belongs to 
the class of hydrates of carbon, bastose constitutes the link 
between the latter and the aromatic compounds, and conse- 
quently jute has properties very different from those of the 
other vegetable fibres. When treated with chlorine this 
bastose is transformed into a chlorinated compound which 
offers two characteristic reactions. The treatment with 
sulphite of soda gives a bright magenta red coloring matter, 
which, by the action of alkalies, is decomposed in soluble 
substances belonging to the group of tannic acid. This, 
latter fact is of great importance practically, since, while in 
the coloring of cellulose, it is necessary to mordant it: 
previously, jute already possesses this mordant from the 
beginning ; it is, in a certain sense a mordanted cellulose,, 
and therefore takes more easily the aniline colors. 

Messrs. Cross and Bevan have also discovered two other 



878 THE MANUFACTURE OP PAPER. 

remarkable properties of jute, which are technically of very 
great importance. When large quantities of fibre are kept 
for some time in a damp condition, principally in presence 
of sea-water, the fibrous material is decomposed in sub- 
stances analogous to tannin, and in acid belonging to the 
group of pectic acid. The fibre itself is rendered more or 
less rotten, and in some cases reduced to a powder. It is 
very likely that the larger quantity of jute brought over to 
Europe is already more or less injured, either from long 
exposure on the voyage or from circumstances which have 
affected it before it is shipped. 

Another singular property of jute is its decomposition by 
means of acids, principally mineral acids. At a compara- 
tively low temperature jute is transformed by acids into 
solid combinations, which at a higher temperature are 
changed in their turn into brown substances and into 
volatile products of disagreeable odor, such as furfurol and 
others. This is the origin of the color and smell of the 
majority of the jute fabrics treated by acid. Dyers never em- 
ploy the same receipts for jute that they would for cellulose, 
as the latter is a great deal more resisting towards acids. 
It has been found that a small amount of acetate of soda 
prevents the destructive qualities of the mineral acids, one 
pound of acetate of soda being sufficient for about five to 
six gallons of the water used. 

Jute can be very easily bleached by means of permanga- 
nate of potash; the loss experienced by this process is about 
3 to 4 per cent. Of course before treating with permaga- 
nate the jute must be thoroughly cleansed either by means 



BLEACHING JUTE. 379 

of alkali or soap. This method, which would give good 
results, is unfortunately too expensive, since 3| to 4f 
pounds of permanganate of potash would be required for 
the bleaching of 100 pounds of jute. According to Messrs. 
Cross and Bevan the hypochlorites are the only available 
materials for using on a commercial scale, but great care 
must be taken in their employment on account of the action 
asserted by free chlorine on the fibre. Chloride of lime 
cannot be used as such in the bleaching of jute, as it trans- 
forms the same into chlorinated compounds ; this latter is 
easily distinguished by the magenta-red coloration it takes 
when wetted with sulphite of soda. When such a chlori- 
nated jute is steamed a decomposition takes place, muriatic 
acid is liberated, a brown coloration is formed, and the tissue 
is rendered completely rotten. 

The hypochlorites oxidize the jute into combinations, 
which form with insoluble compounds, and which are very 
difficult to eliminate. 

It is well known that in the laboratory jute can be easily 
bleached by being suspended over phosphorus in a damp 
atmosphere, and also by means of oxygenated water. 

According to a process recently patented the jute stock is 
first thoroughly washed in the usual manner, after which a 
composition of 10 pounds of alum, 4 pounds of South Caro- 
lina clay, and 2 gallons of water is boiled and added to 500 
pounds of the stock, which is then run in the mixing engine 
for fifteen minutes, after which 50 pounds of bleaching 
powder are added! 

In like proportions the composition and bleaching powder 



380 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER 

are used with larger quantities of the stock, so that it is 
claimed that one-half of the quantity of bleaching powder 
used in the processes heretofore employed is saved, as it 
commonly requires 100 pounds of bleaching powder to 
bleach 500 pounds of this stock. 

In addition to the claimed saving in the quantity of 
bleaching powder employed, it is also claimed for the present 
process that the annoyance of " foam" and the use of coal- 
oil to kill the same are obviated, and that the wire-cloth 
jacketing and felts used on the paper-machines are saved. 

We here refer the reader to the description of Conley's 
process for bleaching jute. 

Bleaching Materials composed of Hemp, Flax, etc. 

The following process, which is the invention of Mr. 
Auguste Demeurs, of Huyssinghen, Belgium, relates to an 
improved process of bleaching applicable to materials com- 
posed of hemp, flax, or other products containing stalks, 
straws, or the like (which generally resist bleaching by 
chlorine alone), and permitting the materials named to be 
utilized in the manufacture of the finest white paper. 

The process is carried into eff'ect in the following manner : 
The materials having previously been subjected to steeping 
or boiling in lye, more or less strong according to their 
quality, and then suitably bleached with chlorine gas, are 
introduced into the chlorous vat, or subjected to a primary 
washing of the pulp in the ordinary manner. When this 
first operation has been suitably effected — that is to say, 



BLEACHING MATERIALS COMPOSED OF HEMP, FLAX, ETC. 381 

when the pulp has completely lost its yellow color, produced 
by the action of the bleaching with gas, and when the 
washing-water, at first acid and cloudy, has become clear, 
and neutral— the supply. of water is stopped, the washing 
drums or rollers being still allowed to operate until the half- 
stuff has attained in the vat the degree of concentration 
desired. It is at this moment that the straws are attacked,, 
the color of which has become almost completely black by 
reason of the washing. For this purpose a caustic lye com- 
posed of equal parts of carbonate of soda and lime is intro- 
duced into the vat. This bath, the degree of which is in 
proportion to the kind of material to be treated, is generally 
prolonged for two or three hours, at the end of which time 
it is claimed that it will be impossible to discover in the 
pulp the least trace of straws. After a second washing, 
which destroys the brown color produced by the lye, the 
bleaching of the pulp is proceeded with by means of a solu- 
tion of chloride of lime, the quantity of which can be con- 
siderably reduced, because the filaments have acquired a cer- 
tain degree of whiteness by the action of the alkali, and 
there is, it is claimed, no longer any fear of the presence of 
straws, which resist the action of the bleaching. 

This process, which is claimed to be much more economi- 
cal than the ordinary methods, offers also the great advan- 
tage of bleaching the straws in such a manner that they do. 
not reappear in the finished paper at the end of several 
months, which enables the manufacturer to keep his pulp 
in stock or on sale with impunity. 

Although the same result can be obtained by the use of 



382 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

other alkalies, the patentee considers the caustic lye of car- 
bonate of soda and lime the most advantageous. The 
manufacturer should choose that alkali which appears to be 
most advantageous for his purpose. 

The bleaching with chlorine gas which sometimes follows 
the reduction of rags into half-stuff can be dispensed with 
and replaced by a solution of chloride of lime. The result 
is claimed to be a sensible diminution in the cost of the 
operation, its duration, and the cost of labor, without taking 
into account the difficulties and inconveniences heretofore 
experienced by a number of manufacturers, who can now 
employ the above-described process without requiring new 
plant. 

Bleaching Vegetable Tissues with Permanganate of Pot- 
ash, AND Neutralizing with Oxalic Acid, Sulphite of 
Sodium, and Chlorine. 

This process, which is the invention of Mr. John A. South- 
mayd, of Elizabeth, N. J., is intended as a substitute for the 
bleaching processes usually practised in pulp-grinding engines, 
wherein from five to ten hundred pounds of pulp are acted 
on at once, and a period of eight to twelve hours is consumed 
in working the pulp through the bleaching liquor. In mills 
of large capacity from ten to twenty such engines, using from 
seventy-five to one hundred and fifty horse-power, are em- 
ployed all the time in bleaching and washing the pulp, it 
being absolutely necessary to remove every trace of the chlo- 
rine to prevent yellowness in the product. In the present 
invention it is claimed that any required amount of the stock 



BLEACHING VEGETABLE TISSUES, ETC. 383 

can be bleached at one time in a single vessel, the chemicals 
acting in a much more rapid manner than does chlorine, and 
a charge of five tons, it is claimed, may be washed and 
bleached in about five hours. 

■The material to be bleached may first be treated with 
caustic potash to soften and prepare the tissues for the action 
of the permanganate of potash, and such treatment it is 
stated is best effected in a closed boiler, where the heat and 
pressure of steam may be used to facilitate the mechanical 
and chemical action of opening the fibres. The permanga- 
nate attacks and decomposes the coloring matter, but does 
not remove it, such matter being subsequently removed by 
the use of the oxalic acid and sulphite of sodium. 

We will first describe the application of the process to the 
bleaching of hard spruce, and then state the modifications 
employed with other fibres. The first stage of the process 
consists in boiling the fibrous matter or tissue with a solution 
of permanganate of potash, in the proportion of ten to fifteen 
pounds of the agent to one ton of the fibre, until the same 
appears to be thoroughly oxidized, the operation requiring 
from one to two hours if performed in a closed vessel under 
steam pressure, but a rather longer time if boiled in an open 
vessel. The application of heat in this stage of the process 
is essential to produce the required effect ; but the subse- 
quent treatment may be performed in a closed or open 
vessel without heat, as may be most convenient. When the 
fibre is properly affected by the permanganate, treat it with 
a solution of oxalic acid and sulphite of sodium, which effects 
the bleaching in about two hours by the decomposition of 



884 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the permanganate and coloring matter. With certain kinds 
of tissues this treatment suffices to discharge all the color ; 
but in cases where the fibre, owing to its place of growth 
and the presence of certain salt in its texture, is not wholly 
bleached by such treatment, it is desirable to prepare this 
acid and sulphite with the addition of a small amount of 
chlorine, thus securing a totally different action with the 
chlorine from that produced by either the acid or chlorine 
alone. For a ton of such fibre, the acid solution is prepared 
by dissolving from forty to sixty pounds of the acid and fifteen 
to twenty-five pounds of sulphite of sodium in two hundred 
gallons of water, and the fibre is preferably boiled in such 
solution to produce the desired effect, although the same results 
can be obtained by using the acid without heat, if a longer 
time be allowed for its action. As the spruce fibre is very 
difficult to bleach, other tissues can be whitened in a shorter 
time and with a smaller proportion of the agents employed. 
In treating manufactured fibres, as rags, the patentee 
states that he has found that, owing to the twisting of the 
threads and the variety of thicknesses, textures, and colors, 
which he subjects to treatment at one time, he is compelled 
to use nearly the same amount of chemicals as for hard crude 
fibres ; but with soft grasses and soft woods like poplar he 
uses only from seven to twelve pounds of permanganate, 
twenty-five to thirty-five pounds of acid, and seven to twelve 
pounds of the sulphite of sodium for each ton of the tissues. 
He also finds in practice that it requires about sixteen hun- 
dred gallons of water to soak a ton of spruce fibre, and the 
preparatory boiling with potash, which prepares the fibres so 



BLEACHING PAPER PULP, ETC. 385 

peculiarly for the action of the permanganate, therefore re- 
quires that amount of water. When the alkali is drawn off 
before the bleaching operation, the bleaching agents are then 
applied with the water in which they are dissolved, and 
enough water is added to thoroughly boil the charge. 

Bleaching Paper Pulp by applying the Bleaching Agent 
IN A Pulverized or Sprayed Condition. 

Mr. Jean B. Fessy, of Saint Etienne, Loire, France, has 
lately patented an invention having for its object to effect 
economy in the cost of bleaching by reason of the small 
quantity of bleaching agents required, and to save time, 
owing to the rapidity with which the process can be per- 
formed, by effecting the thorough utilization of the action 
which develops from the decolorizing agents when in a nas- 
cent condition. 

To attain these objects the bleaching is effected by sub- 
mitting the materials to be bleached to the action of a solu- 
tion or solutions of the decolorizing agents when in a state 
of pulverization, spray, or fine division, which may be effected 
by causing the agents, while under pressure, to come in con- 
tact with a resisting medium, or to be dispersed by steam or 
compressed air, and the materials to be bleached are sub- 
mitted to the action of this finely-divided agent or agents, 
whereby it is claimed the bleaching can be effected readily 
and to any required degree. The bleaching agents may be 
of the usual kind ; but for decolorizing paper pulp chlorous 
acid is preferred. 

25 



386 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Fig. 119 is an end elevation, and Fig. 120 a side ele- 
vation of the apparatus employed by Mr. Fessy for spraying 



the bleaching agent. 



Fig. Il9, 




Fig. 120. 




The apparatus employed is analogous to the pulverizer 
of Koerting Brothers, and is constructed as follows : The 
steam or other fluid passes through a tube, A D, and 
stopcock B into a nozzle, E, from whence it issues under 
pressure into a funnel, F G H J^ into which opens in front 
of the nozzle E a nozzle, 0, through which the bleach- 
ing liquids to be pulverized pass by separate branches, Z, 
provided with stopcocks M if, so that the liquids are 
instantly combined in any required proportions capable ot 



BLEACHING PAPER PULP, ETC. 387 

being regulated by the stopcocks M K. The two nozzles 
constitute an arrangement resembling a spray-producer 
inclosed in the funnel or trumpet mouth F G H J^ and pro- 
duce a thorough pulverization and mixture of the bleaching 
agents, which issue therefrom in a fine state of division and 
act instantaneously upon the pulp or other materials to be 
bleached or decolorized. The stopcock B on the pipe for 
the steam or other fluid under pressure enables the supply 
and pressure to be regulated to give the proper pulverization 
of the agents for their due action on the materials to be 
bleached or decolorized. The steam or other fluid under 
pressure, escaping by the one nozzle, draws the liquids or 
agents from their respective supply-pipes and nozzles in 
regulated quantities according to the adjustment of the stop- 
cocks, and instantaneously sprays and thoroughly combines 
the same, and this finely pulverized combination acts upon 
the matter to be bleached, and efl'ects the bleaching it is 
claimed by instantaneous reaction. 

The pulverizing apparatus described is the best with which 
the patentee is acquainted for the purposes of this invention, 
the essence of which is the instantaneous pulverizing and 
combination of the bleaching agents which will give the 
reaction necessary for bleaching. The bleaching thus 
efl"ected it is claimed does not deteriorate, and by its aid 
paper pulp can be bleached with rapidity, and it is claimed 
that it is possible to bleach pulp which hitherto could not 
be bleached in a practically available manner, and facility is 
also given for obtaining an absolutely regular and uniform 
bleaching to any desired tint, as the operation can be arrested 



388 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

at any stage. There is economy in the use of the bleaching 
agents, as any surplus is not wasted. 

Bleaching in Rotaries. 

Rotary boilers are used in some mills instead of bleaching 
engines. It is true that in these rotary bleachers the 
chlorine gas has no means of escaping into the atmosphere ; 
but for some classes of pulp the friction produced by the 
rotary motion of the boilers is objectionable, and then again 
the progress of the bleaching operation cannot be watched. 

The construction of rotary bleaching boilers is often 
defective and dangerous. Mr. Harrison Loring, of Boston, 
Massachusetts, has patented an invention which consists in 
so constructing and arranging the gudgeons and induction 
pipes for rotary bleaching boilers of all the known forms 
that the induction pipes pass into the boiler separate and 
independent of the trunnions, and the latter made hoUovi^, 
in the form of an annular ring, with flanges attached to the 
head of the boiler, thus obtaining a larger bearing surface 
of the journal, greatly strengthening the head, and avoiding 
cutting a large hole in the centre of the same, as is neces- 
sary in the old form of solid gudgeon. The metal is thus 
distributed in a uniform manner, thereby avoiding strain of 
the casting in cooling, and by making the induction pipes 
separate, heating and expanding of the gudgeons are pre- 
vented. The gudgeons are so made that there shall be no 
communication between the outer casting and the inside of 
the boiler, thereby removing all liability of explosion by 
reason of defects in or accidental breaking of the casting. 



LIST OF PATENTS FOR BLEACHING PULP. 



389 



Fig. 121 represents a longitudinal section of Loring's 
invention. Fig. 122 is an end elevation. A^ represents the 



end or head of the boiler ; Z>, 



a section of the gudgeon 



Fiff. 121. 



Fior. 122. 




attached to the same ; c, the stuffing-box, also attached to 
the boiler-head within the gudgeon ; and c?, the induction 
pipe passing through the stuffing-box. 



Li&t of Patents for Bleaching Pulp, issued hy the Government of the 
United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


4,616 


July 2, 1846. 


J. G. Kendall and J. H. Kendall 


13,008 


June 5, 1855. 


] 


Reissue 




> H. Loring. 


2,320 


July 24, 1866. 


J 


16,100 


Nov. 18, 1856. 


J. A. Roth. 


25,975 


Nov. 1, 1859. 




44,250 


Sept. 13, 1864. 


J. B. Meldrura. 


46,774 


March 14, 1865. 


G. W. Billings. 


51,569 


Dec. 19, 1865. 


J. W. Dixon. 


52,250 


Jan. 23, 1866. 


J. Short. 



390 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


53,152 


March 13, 1866. 


1 


Reissue 




I H. L Jones and D. S. Farquharson. 


2,384 


Oct. 25, 1866. 


J 


55,834 


June 26, 1866. 


J. W. Dixon. 


56,732 


July 31, 1866. 


L. Dodge. 


5G,833 


July 31, 1866. 


J. Tiffany and H. B. Meech. 


56,860 


July 31, 1866. 


F. Perrin. 


57,649 


Aug. 28, 1866. 


CM. E. DuMotay. 


58,935 


Oct. 16, 1866. 


H. M. Baker. 


66,353 


July 2, 186 7. 


W. C. Joy and J. Campbell. 


67,559 


Aug. 6, 1867. 


A. J. Loisean. 


67,941 


Aug. 20, 1867. 


J. B. Biron. 


70,878 


Nov. 12, 1867. 


S. T. Merrill. 


75,691 


March 17, 1868. 


S. T. Merrill, 


85,860 


Jan. 12, 1869. 


B. Smith. 


87,779 


March 16, 1869. 


AV. C. Joy and J. Campbell 


95,365 


Sept. 28, 1869. 


G. E. Marshall. 


99,735 . 


Feb. 8, 1870. 


S. W. Widder. 


100,071 


Feb. 10, 1870. 


E. J. Rice. 


100,523 


March 8, 1870. 


J. W. Goodwyn. 


102,868 


May 10, 1870. 


A. M. Koshbrugh. 


104,781 


June 28, 1870. 


E. Sheldon. 


105,585 


July 19, 1870. 


G. E. Marshall 


106.711 


Aug. 23, 1870. 


H. B. Meech. 


108,509 


Oct. 18, 1870. 


C. E. 0. Hara. 


116,020 


June 20, 1871. 


J. Campbell. 


116,338 


June 27, 1871. 


H. Monroe. 


122,783 


Jan. 16, 1872. 


J. W. Rossman. 


125,658 


April 16, 1872. 


J. Campbell. 


153,775 


Aug. 4, 1874. 


H. J. Lahousse. 


162,043 


April 13, 1875. 


G. W. Dubuisson. 


165,307 


July 6, 1875. 


E. Conley. 


166,117 


July 27, 1875. 


H. Loring. 


266,782 


Sept. 11, 1882. 


A. Demeurs. 


294,619 


March 4, 1884. 


E. Mermite. 


302,055 


Aug. 5, 1884. 


J. A. Southmayd. 


307,390 


Oct. 28, 1884. 


E. A. D. Guichard. 


311,425 


Jan. 27, 1885. 


J. B. Fessy. 


312,525 


Feb. 17, 1885. 


P. Souders,C. Smith, H. C. Craighead, 
and N. Souders. 


321,452 


July 7, 1885. 


G. H. Pond. 


322,655 


July 21, 1885. 


A. W. Wilson. 



BEATING. 391 



CHAPTER XII. 

beating — beating engines — list of patents for pulp 
engines and bed-plates. 

Beating. 

The paper may not be made in the beaters as some manu- 
facturers claim it is, but the beating-engine department in 
the paper-mill is a very important one, and in addition to 
being roomy and well lighted it should be kept in an orderly 
and cleanly condition. 

The foreman of the beating department should be a tho- 
roughly practical and trustworthy man, upon whom the 
superintendent or the owner of the mill can rely implicitly 
that all orders will be carried out exactly as to the quanti- 
ties and as to the order and time as given. 

It is one of the most delicate and important operations in 
paper-making to determine the composition of the pulp, or 
the relative proportion of each grade, the combination of 
which is to supply the beating engine, and the responsibility 
should rest solely with the superintendent of the mill, who 
alone should decide the matter. 

Papers are usually made upon orders for a certain pattern, 
and it is important to impart to them the qualities required, 
although it must be admitted that they are not always com- 
patible. It is for the manufacturer to appreciate the prac- 



392 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tical value of these conditions and then to regulate the 
general work of the mill accordingly. 

Taking a certain theoretical composition for his pulp he 
must see whether the cost to which the paper will come is 
not too high. 

The superintendent ought, therefore, to have in his mind, 
or near at hand, everything necessary for his information ; 
the cost of the raw materials, and the expenses of cutting, 
boiling, bleaching, loading, sizing, and coloring. He should 
also see whether the supply will allow him to employ a 
certain grade in preference to another. Some of these items 
of cost can, of course, be varied when the pulp, such as 
wood, straw, etc., is purchased already prepared. 

When these various points have been settled he must 
foresee the difficulties that may be met in making the paper 
by machinery. If the paper is to be glazed or colored, will 
such and such a material not be apt to introduce too many 
lumps, etc., into the pulp, and will this not result in wearing 
out the wires and felts too rapidly ] 

It is in the matter of the composition of pulps that the 
knowledge of the successful manufacturer is displayed. 
Before settling the question he must indeed have gone over 
all those involved in the art of paper-making. It generally 
requires but a few minutes' reflection for one who thoroughly 
understands the capabilities of his mill. The foreman of the 
beating department ought to pay attention so as to see that 
each lot of pulp contains the grades required for his working 
lists for the day, and a sufficient quantity for the number of 
lots of stuff he is ordered to prepare. The assistants bring 



BEATING. 393 

in the fixed quantity of pulp to be beaten and throw it into 
the tank of the beating engine, and when this is filled wash- 
ing is commenced and continued for a sufficient length of 
time. 

When the pulp has arrived at such a degree of tenuity 
that it may be in danger of passing between the wires of the 
strainer this is closed and the washing ceases. 

When animal-sized papers are being made, a sufficient 
quantity of hyposulphite of sodium or " antichlorine" to neu- 
tralize the chlorine is introduced just as soon as the washing 
is completed. 

But with engine-sized paper the loading material should 
first be added after the washing is finished ; then the size is 
introduced, then the alum, and finally the coloring matter. 

When the washing is completed the washing drum is 
raised and the beating roll is then gradually lowered upon 
the plate ; but before the roll is lowered the engineer must 
be satisfied that the chlorine in all its combinations has been 
thoroughly eliminated. 

There are numerous methods of testing for chlorine. 
Small slips of blue litmus paper are sometimes used for this 
purpose, the washing being continued as long as the blue 
litmus color of the slips is changed to red after being im- 
mersed for a moment or so in the contents of the engine 
trough. 

A more sensitive method by which the presence of chlo- 
rine can be established with greater certainty is based on 
the characteristic color which iodine produces in contact 
with starch. 



394 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

In order to test the contents of an engine by the latter 
method a handful of the pulp is taken out, pressed so that 
the excess of liquor runs off, while leaving the pulp still 
moist, when a few drops of a solution prepared as follows are 
poured on it: ^ oz. of starch is mixed with sufficient cold 
water to form it into a paste, enough boiling water being 
then added to make the mixture up to one pint when two 
drachms of iodide of potassium are added and thoroughly 
incorporated; the test is ready for use when cold. If chlo- 
rine is present in the pulp a few drops of this bleach test 
will color the stuff blue-black ; but if the stuff is free from 
chlorine no change in color will take place. 

As soon as the wash-water is cut off from the engine and 
the washing drum is raised the engineer commences the 
beating by lowering the beating roll sufficiently to begin the 
operation, the space between the knives being gradually 
curtailed as the operation proceeds. The theory of the beat- 
ing process is that the tibres are not to be cut but are to be 
drawn out to their utmost extent by the action of the knives 
and the friction among the mass of material itself while in 
the trough of the beating engine. 

This theory cannot be fully carried out for ordinary grades 
of papers ; but where the number of engines and the capacity 
of the mill and margin of profit will allow it the principle 
should be worked up to as closely as possible. 

Long pulp is produced by blunt knives and slow working ; 
short pulp by sharp knives and quick work. 

The beating of the stuff into pulp is usually timed accord- 
ing to the thickness of the paper to be made from it, and in 



BEATING. 395 

direct proportion to the uniformity of time consumed in the 
preparation of a lot of pulp to be made at a specified weight, 
will the regularity in quality and weight run on the wire of 
the machine. 

Three to five hours may often be sufficient time for run- 
ning off a beater of pulp to be used for thick paper ; but 
twenty-four hours or even longer will be required when the 
pulp is to be used for the thinnest sheets. 

The touch is sometimes relied upon by those having con- 
siderable experience, to determine the fineness of the pulp ; 
but this fact is best determined by the "proof." A cylin- 
drical vessel made of copper, zinc, or gutta percha is gener- 
ally employed for this purpose, a small quantity of the pulp 
being placed in the vessel and diluted with a large quantity 
of water ; as the thin mixture is slowly poured off and flows 
over the rim as a very thin sheet, the fibres of the pulp will 
take a direction parallel to that of the current of water, at 
the point where it flows over the rim, thus allowing the 
length of the fibre to be determined. 

If the pulp looks cloudy and quite .a quantity of little 
white points or lumps remain visible, it will be necessary to 
make these imperfections disappear, and for this purpose the 
engineer lowers the roll so that the extremity of its blades 
almost impinge those of the plate, but they must not actually 
touch. In fifteen or twenty minutes the lumps can usually 
be brushed out under the action of the roll. 

Many manufacturers are handicapped in their efforts to 
produce the best qualities of the different classes of papers 
by having too small a number of beating engines in their 



396 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

mills, as the pulp in such cases must be worked off too 
hastily. 

Much, however, depends upon the workmen in the beating 
department, whether the pulp is of the desired quality or 
not. It is possible to M^ork even a comparatively weak 
material into a reasonably strong paper, if care is exercised 
to properly handle it in the beating engine ; but, as has been 
previously intimated, " if the stuiF is not correctly treated, 
such as by sending out stuff for laid paper too fast and long, 
or too soft and carrying too much water, the weight will 
vary, and the paper crush at the couchers and stick at the 
press rolls, causing all sorts of trouble and confusion to the 
machine man, and a considerable amount of waste." 

When the beating is about three-quarters completed the 
loading materials, the sizing, and coloring matters are thrown 
into the trough of the engine ; and while the pulp is finish- 
ing, the mixture of the contents takes place, this, however, 
may often be facilitated by stirring. 

When the lot of pulp is finished the engineer lifts the 
plug and the pulp is run off" through larger pipes made of 
copper or other suitable material into the supply vat of the 
paper machine. The trough of the engine is then carefully 
rinsed and the plug replaced; after which the engine is in 
readiness for the commencement of another operation. 

The difi"erent materials used for the manufacture of paper, 
of course, require to be treated in the beating engine accord- 
ing to their nature ; pulp made from old paper requiring only 
a thorough brushing so as to prevent any small pieces of 
paper from passing through without being reduced to fibre. 



BEATING. 397 

If the waste papers or " imperfections" are to be mixed with 
rags, the latter must be thoroughly reduced before the paper 
stuff is added. 

Bleached straw and wood pulps, as has been previously 
stated, are already reduced to fibres, and are generally only 
mixed in beating engines, some of which in leading mills 
have only a smooth bed plate. 

'•'■ Aniichlorine :^^ Its Preparation. 

Hyposulphite of sodium, or so-called " antichlorine" is 
used in paper-making to discharge the bleach from the 
pulp. There are several ways of procuring hyposulphite 
of soda. Very fine crystals may be obtained by passing 
sulphurous acid gas, well washed, into a strong solution of 
sodium carbonate, forming neutral sulphite of soda, and 
then digesting the solution with sulphur at a gentle heat. 

The following simple method of preparing antichlorine 
will answer for most paper-mills : Have a large square 
wooden box or cask constructed, and place it upon a plat- 
form about 3 feet and 6 inches high. On the inside of the 
box or cask nail a sufficient number of blocks to support 
two movable frames, which are to be covered with old close 
fishing seine or netting made of twine; upon each frame 
there are to be placed 250 pounds of the common crystal 
soda of commerce, care being observed to have the meshes 
of the screens sufficiently close to prevent the soda from 
falling through. A tight cover is then put on the box or 
cask, and "daubed" or luted around with soft clay so as to 
make the cover air-tight. It is preferable to attach an air- 



398 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

cock to the cover so as to allow the air to escape from the 
interior of the receptacle ; but two or three small holes 
made in the clay luting will answer every purpose. The 
receptacle containing the soda is connected by means of a 
suitable pipe with a retort into which are placed eleven 
pounds of sulphur. 

In a short time after fire is started under the retort the 
sulphur will commence to melt, at which point a piece of 
red-hot metal should be thrust into the sulphur, the fumes 
from the burning of which wdll pass through the connecting 
pipe into the receptacle containing the soda which will be 
thus converted into an antichlorine. When the first eleven 
pounds of sulphur are consumed, another eleven pounds 
should be placed in the retort, as the five hundred pounds 
of soda will require twenty-two pounds of sulphur for its 
complete conversion into hyposulphite of sodium. 

The antichlorine is then dissolved in the box or cask, 
and drawn off into carboys, which are then taken to the 
beating-engine department of the mill. 

Upon a fairly large scale hyposulphite of sodium is now 
prepared by treating tank waste liquor, or red liquors, with 
sulphurous acid obtained by the combustion of pyrites. The 
sulphurous gas is passed up a wrought-iron tower packed 
with coke, down which the liquors are run. This process 
yields a cheap product and is preferable to the old method 
of treating tank waste. 



BEATING ENGINES. 



399 



Beating Engines. 

The Kingsland Palp Engine. 

The Kingsland pulp engine made by Messrs. Cyrus 
Currier & Sons, Newark, New Jersey, is shown in Figs. 
123 to 126. 

Fig. 123 is a perspective view, Fig. 124 a front view, 

Fitj. 123. 




Fisr. 124. 



Fis:. 125. 



Fis. 126. 




400 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Fig. 125 a vertical cross section, and Fig. 126 a front view 
of the plate of the Kings! and engine. 

The half-stuff descends through the pipe -B, Fig. 124, 
and passes into a circular chamber, the sides of which are 
formed of two plates, 0, Q, provided with steel teeth; these 
are stationary, and can be brought closer together, or placed 
further apart, by the handle and gearing, G^ A^ (7, E, Fig. 
122, so as to grind the half-stuff in pulp of the desired 
length of fibre. The threaded bolts F, passed through lugs 
Z), bring up the back plate 0, while F forms guides for E. 
Between and Q a plate, P, is placed; it has steel teeth, 
and is rotated rapidly between them by a shaft and belt. 
This shaft works in journals, and has no collars, so that it 
can adjust itself to the varying distances between the outer 
plates. The pulp, when ground, passes out through pipe / 
in a continuous stream. 

Usual Construction of Beating Engines. 

Beating engines are very similar in construction to wash- 
ing engines. A beater-roller set with knives around its 
periphery is used in combination with a bed-plate, also set 
with knives, the parts being operated in a vat or trough, in 
which a constant circulation of the material to be pulped is 
maintained. 

Heretofore, ordinarily, the material has been circulated 
horizontally around in an upright partition termed a " mid- 
fellow," and the beater-roll and bed-plate have been placed 
in the alley or channel between this mid-fellow and one side 
of the tank. The beater-roll lifted the material over a sort 



BEATING ENGINES. 401 

of dam (termed a " back-fall"), and the material then flowed 
by the action of gravity around the mid-fellow, and entered 
again between the beater-roll and the bed-plate. It has, 
however, been proposed to dispense with the mid-fellow, and 
have the material returned under the back-fall and bed-plate. 
In either case, however, the circulating force is that of 
gravity due to the piling up of the liquid or semi-liquid on 
the side of the back-fall opposite to the beater-roll. Con- 
sequently, the flow is comparatively feeble, and it is neces- 
sary to use a large quantity of water in order to prevent 
the fibre in suspension from depositing. In the invention 
patented by Mr. John Hoyt, of Manchester, N. H., and 
shown in Figs. 127 to 130, a much more rapid and vigor- 
ous circulation is claimed to be maintained. The beater- 
roll in this invention is placed at one end of the vat, 
which is of a depth sufficient to contain it, and the other 
part of the vat is divided by a horizontal partition or divi- 
sion, which extends from the beater-roll nearly to the 
other end. The material to be pulped is carried around 
by the beater-roll, and is delivered into the upper section 
above the partition. It flows over the partition, then 
passes down around the end of the same, and returns 
through the lower section of the vat to the beater-roll. The 
bed-plate is placed at the bottom of the vat under the 
beater-roll. The beater-roll not only draws in the material, 
creating a partial vacuum in the lower section of the vat, 
but delivers it into the upper section with considerable force, 
impelling it forward very rapidly. By the aid of this more 
rapid as well as more vigorous circulation not only is the 

26 



402 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

material returned more quickly, and, therefore, acted upon 
more often by the beater-roll in the same time, but it may 
be worked with a much less quantity of water, and thereby 
very important advantages may be secured. These advan- 
tages are stated to be, first, in the improved quality of the 
product, for when a considerable body of the fibrous mate- 
rial is drawn between the knives the different pieces are 
rubbed together, and thus disintegrated without destroying 
the length and felting quality of the fibre, whereas when 
the pulp is thin, the pieces are ground individually, as it 
were, between the knives, and the integrity of the fibre in 
large measure destroyed ; secondly, in the greater quantity 
of pulp which can be prepared in a medium of given size, 
owing to the larger proportion of fibrous material in the 
charge ; and thirdly, in avoiding the liability of the fibrous 
material depositing out of the liquid, and lodging in the 
channels. 

Hoyfs Beating Engine. 

Figs. 127 to 130 represent a beating engine constructed 
in accordance with Hoyt's invention. 

Fig. 127 is a plan with part of the casing or vat removed ; 
Fig. 128, a vertical longitudinal section; Fig. 129, a plan 
of the bed-plate ; Fig. 130, a partial view in cross section. 

The cylindrical roll A^ provided with knives, 5, set radially 
in the periphery, is moimted concentrically on the shaft (7, 
which is journalled in the sides of the vat D. The vat is of 
any suitable length, and in depth about equals the diameter 
of the roll, which is set in the vat close to one end. The 



BEATING ENGINES. 



403 



ends of the vat are rounded. The beater-roll is slightly 
eccentric to the curvature of the end of the vat, in order to 



Fie:. 127. 




Fig. 128. 




give a clearance (see Fig. 128) and allow the crude pulp to 
be lifted with less difficulty. 

The bed-plate knives E are set in the shoe F, which is 
fixed in or to the bottom of the vat under the beater-roll. 



404 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



The knives are separated by strips or blocks, (r, of wood or 
other suitable material, and a number of these knives and 



E~\ 








Fig. 


129. 








Fig. 130. 

























■a, 




J» 












^ ^ 








M 




^^ ' =< *^ 


-. 







_ 




l^^^^^ 




ta 




— =— 


— — 


-=A 





strips are fastened together by a curved bolt or rivet, H. As 
shown, the knives on each side of the middle are fastened 
together. The shoe F has flanges /, which are radial with 
respect to the axis of the beater-roll and form a dovetail. 
The two sets of knives with their spacing-strips are placed in 
the dovetail and are spread apart by the wedges /iTand L. 
Those marked /fare of wood, the wedge L of iron. The 
wedges K are first inserted and the wedge L is driven be- 
tween them. When the bed-plate knives become worn they 
can be set out by withdrawing the wedges, and placing 
strips or pieces under the knives. As they are set out the 
two sets are drawn toward each other, owing to the inclina- 
tion of the flanges /, and it is necessary therefore to plane 
off a little of the wooden wedges K before replacing them 
and the iron wedge. The bed-plate knives are placed radi- 
ally with respect to the axis of the beater-roll, and are 
adjusted in nearly radial planes. The shaft of the beater- 
roll turns in close boxes, which are further provided with 
collars, ilf, in order to make the joint liquid-tight. Any 



BEATING ENGINES. 405 

ordinary or suitable means can be used to adjust the shaft of 
the roll. Between the beater-roll and the opposite end of 
the vat is the horizontal partition N, which extends to within 
a short distance of the end of the vat. There is an upright 
inclined plate, P, which is brought at the upper edge into 
close proximity to the beater-knives, but does not touch 
them. The vat is provided with the usual valve for with- 
drawing the pulp and also with the pipe for supplying 
water. In the sides of the vat opposite the ends of the bed- 
plate knives are curved slots, through which the knives and 
wedges can be inserted and withdrawn. In operation these 
slots are closed by blocks, Q, of corresponding shape, so as to 
fit the hole. The blocks are held in place by the plates R, 
which are bolted over thie slots after the blocks have been 
put in place. 

The operation of the engine is as follows : The beater- 
roll and bed-plate knives being properly adjusted, the vat is 
filled with the rags or fibrous material to be pulped and the 
proper quantity of water. The beater-roll being revolved at 
the proper speed — say, for a roll four feet in diameter, at the 
speed of one hundred and twenty revolutions per minute — 
the rags and liquid are drawn between the knives, are carried 
up by the beater-roll, and thrown over the edge of the plate 
P. They flow around the partition N with considerable 
velocity and return again and again to be acted upon by the 
knives. The roll is revolved until the pulp is properly re- 
duced. 



406 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Umpherston^ s Beating Engine. 

As we have previously explained, pulp engines generally 
consist of a trough having straight sides and semicircular 
ends, an operating roll, a co-operating bottom plate and back- 
fall, the trough being partly divided by a longitudinal par- 
tition, called the " mid-fellow" or " mid-feather," around 
which the pulp flows from the back of the roll to its front, 
passing between the roll and bottom plate over the back-fall, 
and again around the " mid-fellow" to the front of the roll, 
from whence the operation is repeated. Such a construction' 
and arrangement of parts are found in practice to be inefli- 
cient, the pulp nearest the circumference of the trough hav- 
ing a greater distance to travel than that portion near the 
mid-fellow, that in its repeated revolutions is not so often 
acted upon, and the mass is therefore unequally treated. 

The invention patented by Mr. William Umpherston, of 
Leith, Scotland, is designed to overcome this difficulty ; and 
it consists in providing a longitudinal and direct passage 
beneath the back-fall, whereby the pulp, in its delivery from 
the back of the roll and movement through the passage to 
the front of the roll, is directed as through an inverted 
siphon and pressed through the passage by its superincum- 
bent weight at the terminus of the back-fall. 

As we have already several times described the minor 
details of construction common to this class of machines, we 
shall now simply outline a machine containing such essential 
parts as are necessary to understand Umpherston 's improve- 
ments. 



BEATING ENGINES. 



407 



In Fig. 131 the rotating roll A has a surface adapted for 
grating, rasping, or filing, and the fixed bottom plate B is 
also provided with a similar surface co-operating with that 
upon the roll A, the distance between such parts being 




regulated by a vertical adjustment of the latter. The form 
of the back-fall C is similar to that of ordinary pulping- 
machines ; but in the present invention a return-passage, Z>, 
is provided beneath the fall, so that the semi-fluid contents 
that pass over the back-fall are directed by the return-pas- 
sage to the front of the roll A, the superincumbent weight 
of the mass of pulp as it is delivered from the back-fall press- 
ing the mass along this return-passage. The relative posi- 
tion of the drum-washer or cleaning-cylinder is shown at E^ 
and a hood, G, is also provided to prevent the pulp from 
being thrown out of the machine. 

It will be seen that Umpherston's construction provides 



408 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

for an equal distribution and treatment of every portion of 
the material acted upon, which insures rapidity and uniform- 
ity of treatment. 

This engine is manufactured by the J. Morton Poole Co., 
of Wilmington, Del., who state that they have one of Um- 
pherston's engines of 10 cwt. capacity now (1886) in success- 
ful operation at the Rockland Mill of the Jessup & Moore 
Paper Co., near Wilmington, Del. 

It is claimed for this engine that it occupies only about 
one-half of the floor space required for an engine of the ordi- 
nary kind of equal capacity. The movement of the pulp in 
it is uniform, and no stirring is necessary to prevent lodg- 
ments. It is claimed that the pulp circulates freely, although 
furnished thicker than can be done in engines of the ordinary 
kind of equal capacity. 

The Jordan pulp engine made by Messrs. J. H. Home Sc 
Sons, Lawrence, Mass., and also by the Windsor Locks 
Machine Co., Windsor Locks, Conn., the Brightman Engine, 
made by the Cleveland Paper Company, Cleveland, O., the 
Jeffers Refining Engine, built by the Pusey & Jones Com- 
pany, Wilmington, Del., as well as a large number of other 
engines which will be enumerated in the list of patents at the 
close of this section, are so well known to the trade that it is 
scarcely necessary to describe them in detail in this volume. 

List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates^ issued by the Govern- 
ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


1,760 


Sept. 5, 1840. 


W. Dickenson. 


1,813 


Oct. 10, 1840. 


R. Daniels. 


6,784 


Oct. 9, 1849. 


W. Clarke. 



LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 409 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


8,261 


July 29, 1861. 


J. C. Fonda. 


22,707 


Jan. 25, 1859. 


F. Stiles, Jr., and J. N. Crehore. 


34,214 


Jan. 21, 1862. 


J. Percy. 


26,387 


Dec. 6, 1859. 


F. Vandeventer. ~ 


43,707 


June 7, 1864. 


G. A. Corser. 


46,893 


March 21, 1865. 


J. G. Fuller. 


47,739 


May 16, 1865. 


T. Lindsay. 


47,849 


May 23, 1865. 


O. Morse. 


52,941 


Feb. 27, 1866. 


J. Easton, Jr., and F. Thny. 


57,355 


Aug. 21, 1866. 


J. Mc Crack en. 


60,645 


Dec. 18, 1866. 


J. M. Shew. 


70,878 


Nov. 12, 1867. 


S. F. Merrill. 


76,270 


March 31, 1868. 


J. Taggart. 


85,386 


Dec. 29, 1868. 


D. Hunter. 


86,858 


Feb. 9, 1869. 


W. Parkinson. 


94,816 


Sept. 14, 1869. 


P. Frost. 


94,843 


Sept. 14, 1869. 


P. Rose. 


98,691 


Jan. 11, 1870. 


E. Havirkins. 


101,008 


March 22, 1870. 


A. Hankey. 


105,728 


July 26, 1870. 


T. Rose and R. Gibson. 


115,274 


May 30, 1871. 


J. Bridge. 


116,039 


June 20, 1871. 


R. M. Fletcher. 


116,045 


June 20, 1871. 


P. Frost. 


116,978 


July 11, 1871. 


H. B. Meech. 


117,122 


July 18, 1871. 


J. Taylor. 


118,092 


Aug. 15, 1871. 


G. Ames. 


118,767 


Sept. 5, 1871. 


E. Wilkinson. 


119,107 


Sept. 19, 1871. 


B. F. Barker. 


120,265 


Oct. 24, 1871. 


] 


Reissue 




[ S. L. Gould. 


4,976 


July 16, 1872. 


I 


120,787 


Nov. 7, 1872. 


Wm. R. Smith. 


120,837 


Nov. 14, 1871. 


N. W. Taylor and J. H. Brightman, 


121,780 


Dec. 12, 1871. 


J. Hatch. 


121,970 


Dec. 19, 1871. 


C. Smith. 


124,612 


March 12, 1872. 


T. Nugent. 


128,788 


July 9, 1872. 


J. M. Burghardt and F. Burghardt. 


130,067 


July 30, 1872. 


T. Nugent. 


135,631 


Feb. 11, 1873. 


G. A. Corser. 


144,557 


Nov. 11, 1873. 


S. Moore and R. H. Hurlburt. 


150,147 


April 28, 1874. 


W. B. Fowler. 


151,992 


June 16, 1874. 


A. S. Lyman. 


153,774 


Aug. 4, 1874. 


W. Kennedy. 



410 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




155,152 


Sept. 22, 1874, 


F. Genin. 




157,625 


Dec. 8, 1874. 


M. Meyer. 




160,746 


March 16, 1875. 


M. R. Bonjin. 




160,996 


March 23, 1875. 


B. F. Barker. 




163,638 


May 25, 1875. 


A. Cushman. 




166,519 


Aug. 10, 1875. 


A. Gardner; 




163,638 


May 25, 1875. 


F. A. Cushman. 




174,805 


March 14, 1876. 


S. S. Gould. 




178,205 


May 30, 1876. 


W. E. Taylor. 




182,891 


Oct. 3, 1876. 


J. Chase. 




183,349 


Oct. 17, 1876. 


J. S. Warren. 




189,671 


April 7, 1876. 


J. S. Warren. 




190,373 


May 1, 1877. 


J. H. Robinson. 




191,898 


June 12, 1877. 


E. Sumner. 




194,824 


Sept. 4, 1877. 


1 




Reissue 




V E. D. G. Jones. 




8,609 


March 4, 1879. 


J 




199,940 


Feb. 5, 1878. 


A. A. Simonds. 




200,828 


March 5, 1878. 


C. L. Hamilton. 




208,292 


Sept. 24, 1878. 


J. Carroll. 




210,937 


Dec. 17, 1878. 


J. H. Home. 




213,640 


March 25, 1879. 


P. P. Emory. 




216,349 


June 10, 1879. 


W. H. Russdl. 




216,505 


June 17, 1879. 


C. Bremaker. 




221,812 


Nov. 18, 1879. 


A. Hankey. 




224,079 


Feb. 3, 1880. 


G. A. Corser. 




225,976 


March 30, 1880. 


G. H. Ennis. 




226,098 


March 30, 1880. 


O. Morse. 




229,201 


June 22, 1880. 


J. Taylor. 




232,460 


Sept. 21, 1880. 


C. E. B. Cooke, J 
Hibbert. 


Cooke and G 


239,350 


March 29, 1881. 


A. J. Shipton. 




244,220 


July 12, 1881. 


A. Forbes. 




246,528 


Aug. 30, 1881. 


E. Mather. 




248,707 


Oct. 25, 1881. 


H. P. Case and E. 


L. Granger. 


249,257 


Nov. 8, 1881. 


A. C. Rice. 




253,447 


Feb. 7, 1882. 


W. E. Taylor. 




253,606 


Feb. 14, 1882. 


J. H. Home. 




254,251 


Feb. 28, 1882. 


J. R. Abbe. 




256,352 


April 11, 1882. 


G. Miller. 




273,801 


March 13, 1883. 


C. S. Barton. 




277,268 


May 8, 1883. 


S. L. Gould, 




282,818 


Aug. 7, 1883. 


W. WHiitely. 





LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 411 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


286,216 


Oct. 9, 1883. 


0. Morse. 


288,234 


Nov. 13, 1883. 


A. Hankey. 


289,235 


Nov. 27, 1883. 


G. W. Cressman. 


297,037 


April 15, 1884. 


] 


Reissue 




V W. Umpherston. 


10,658 


Nov. 3, 1885. 


J 


299,307 


May 27, 1884. 


W. Whitely. 


302,399 


July 22, 1884. 


A. Hankey. 


303,374 


Aug. 12, 1884. 


J. Hoyt. 


307,237 


Oct. 28, 1884. 


C. F. Taylor. 


308,255 


Nov. 18, 1884. 


G. F. Harlan. 


310,230 


Jan. 6, 1885. 


A. A. Simonds. 


312,390 


Feb. 17, 1885. 


J. F. Seiberling. 


320,612 


June 23, 1885. 


H. Allen and L. S. Mason, 


320,721 


June 23, 1885. 


F. S. Taylor. 



412 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SIZING ENGINE SIZING BLEACHING RESIN AND PREPARING 

SIZE THEREFROM SURFACE SIZING HARD SIZING PAPER IN 

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE — " DOUBLE-SIZEd" PAPER TUB 

sizing with benzine and resin sizing the surface of 

printing paper materials used in sizing paper water- 
proof sizings for paper. 

Sizing. 

Prior to the mtrodiiction of paper- making machinery the 
sheets were sized only with gelatine or animal size ; but resin 
or vegetable size is now commonly used; it is added to the 
pulp in the beating engine, and greatly facilitates the 
manufacture of paper in continuous sheets. 

The present century has been rich in great mechanical 
and chemical achievements, and the adaptation of inventions 
to industrial pursuits ; one improvement has engendered 
many others, consequently we should not be surprised at 
the large number of inventions relating to paper manufac- 
ture which were a natural sequence to the invention and 
perfection of our modern paper-making machines. 

The first attempts at sizing pulp in the beating engine 
commenced at the beginning of this century; the experi- 
ments of Braconnot, d'Arcet, and others leading " to the 
preparation of resin or vegetable size. 



ENGINE SIZING. 413 

Papers may be roughly divided into two classes, viz., 
"tub sized" and "engine sized;" but as most papers, even 
tub sized, excepting blotting- or water-leaf paper, are more 
or less sized in the engine we shall first speak of the latter 
method. 

Engine Sizing. 

The intimate mixture with the pulp and precipitation 
upon the fibres of a substance which, when desiccated, will 
virtually fill the interstices between the fibres, and at the 
same time be comparatively water-proof, is the theory upon 
which engine sizing is based, and the substance commonly 
employed for this purpose is a mixture of resin soap treated 
with alum. 

The thorough incorporation of this body with the fibre is 
best produced by first adding an aqueous solution of resin 
soap to the pulp in the trough of the engine, and then, 
after an intimate mixture of the pulp and soap has been 
made, a solution of alum is run in. A combination of 
resin and alumina and of sulphate of sodium is formed by 
a double decomposition in the pulp. The resinate of 
alumina thus intimately incorporated with the pulp under- 
goes a fusion when the paper passes over the drying 
cylinders and communicates to the paper its hydrofuge 
property. 

When there is added to the sizing a small proportion of 
starch the latter in swelling draws together and imites the 
fibres of the paper and renders it less spongy. 

The resin soap is usually prepared in a wooden tub or 



414 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

iron-jacketed boiler having a capacity of about 250 or 300 
gallons, which is a convenient size for dissolving two barrels 
of resin ; steam is admitted near the bottom of the tub or 
boiler through a suitable pipe. The desired quantity of 
water having been run into the receptacle, carbonate or 
caustic soda dissolved and previously strained is next added 
to the water, and the contents of the tub or boiler raised to 
the boiling point, when the finely powdered resin is gradu- 
ally thrown in, and the contents constantly stirred with a 
paddle for two hours, or until the resin is entirely dissolved. 
It is desirable not to use too small a proportion of water in 
the preparation of the resin soap, as the impurities of both 
the resin and the soda in such a case will be mixed with the 
soap. 

S^om-e manufacturers of paper prefer to dissolve the resin 
in a solution of soda-ash of such concentration that its 
specific gravity is greater than that of the resin soap. The 
quantity of water required to dissolve the resin and produce 
the desired concentration is a matter for experiment, and is 
readily discovered after a few trials. 

The impurities of the soda and resin fall to the bottom 
of the boiler after about two hours' boiling and stirring ; 
the resin soap remains on top, and can be taken off in a 
clear condition. Should a large quantity of soda remain on 
the bottom of the tub or boiler after the soap is removed, 
more resin or less solution must be used next time ; but if 
the resin is not properly dissolved after the boiling has been 
continued for the usual length of time, the proportion of 
soda should be increased. 



ENGINE SIZING. 415 

The proportion of resin used to each pound of soda-ash 
varies in different mills, three, four, and even five pounds of 
resin being used to each pound of soda-ash. 

The proportions of resin, soda-ash, and water can be best 
determined by practical experience, as no prescription could 
be devised which would be suitable to every case. 

M. d'Arcet, who modified the proportions recommended 
by M. Braconnot, recommended for the preparation of the 
resinous soap : — 

Powdered resin . . . . . . .4.80 parts. 

Crystals of soda at 80° (Fr. alkaliraeter) . . 2.22 " 
Water .100 " 

Theoretically speaking, only 2.45 parts of alum would 
be required to precipitate the resin ; but the waters, which 
are almost always calcareous, neutralize a part of the alum. 

Crystals of soda are much more expensive than soda-ash, 
but on account of their greater purity they are sometimes 
preferred to soda-ash. At the present day the resin soap is 
preferably made by dissolving ordinary resin with a solution 
of carbonate of soda under a boiling heat in a steam-jacketed 
boiler, the class of paper to be made governing the quality 
of resin to be employed. The boiling usually requires from 
one to eight hours, according to the relative proportions of 
soda-ash and resin used — the greater the proportion of soda- 
ash employed, the less the time required for boiling — the 
process being completed when a sample of the soap formed 
is completely soluble in water. 

As we have previously intimated, the proportion of resin 
used to each pound of carbonate of soda differs in almost 



416 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

every mill ; but about three pounds of resin to one pound of 
carbonate of soda is the usual proportion. It is really waste 
to use a greater quantity of soda than is absolutely neces- 
sary to thoroughly dissolve the resin, as it only consumes 
its equivalent of alum, without yielding any beneficial 
results. 

We have several times mentioned carbonate of soda 
(washing soda) as the material used for dissolving the resin, 
but caustic soda is used in some mills, and soda-ash in others, 
all being about equally suitable. 

The resin soap is cooled after boiling by running it off 
into iron-tanks, where it is allowed to settle, the soap forming 
as a dense syrup-like mass, and the colorhig matters and 
other admixtures of the resin rising to the top are easily 
removed. 

It is important to run off the mother-liquor containing 
the excess of alkali, for when the soap is used it consumes 
alum to neutralize it. 

After the impurities have beeii removed from the tank 
containing the resin soap, the latter is dissolved in water. 
If, owing to imperfect boiling, the resin is not thoroughly 
dissolved, a small quantity of carbonate of soda is added to 
the water used for dissolving the soap. 

In many mills where starch is used for stiffening purposes 
the soap is mixed with a quantity (about 1| part of starch 
to 1 part of resin) of starch paste, which is prepared in a 
separate vessel by dissohing farina in hot water. Some 
manufacturers mix the starch paste with the kaolin in lieu 
of mixing it with the resin. 



ENGINE SIZING. 417 

The mixtures of either resin soap and starch paste, or of 
starch paste and kaolin after being sifted very carefully, are 
in readiness to be used. 

From 3 to 4 pounds of the mixture of resin soap and 
starch paste to each 100 pounds of dry pulp are about the 
proportions in which the size is generally used ; but the 
quantity added to the pulp in the trough of the beating 
engine, of course, depends upon whether the paper is to be 
soft-sized or hard-sized. 

The mixture of soap and starch after being dissolved in 
water, and in some cases even without being dissolved, is 
put into the beating engine in which the pulp is circulating, 
and after being thoroughly mixed with the pulp the solu- 
tion of alum or sulphate of alumina is added. 

The "crystallized' alum" used by paper manufacturers is 
valuable in the sizing process only on account of the sulphate 
of alumina which it contains, the other ingredients, sulphate 
of potash, water, etc., contained in the alum exerting no 
influence upon the resin soap, are consequently of no value. 

The concentrated alum, which always contains the greatest 
percentage of sulphate of alumina and other sulphates which 
have a direct action on the resin soap, are the most 
economical for use, being proportionately cheaper than 
crystallized alum ; such concentrated alums as " Pearl" 
alum, etc., being especially employed. 

Some paper-makers do not object to the presence of iron, 
for ordinary purposes, provided it is in the state of a proto- 
salt, or in the ferrous state, and is accompanied by more or 
less free acid. Many of the concentrated alums and alumi- 

27 



418 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

nous cakes contain the iron as a ferric salt, and this is readily 
decomposed, depositing the ferric oxide and making more or 
less discoloration, which is very objectionable when clear, 
white papers are desired. The acid alums are not altogether 
objectionable because they are very largely used, especially 
for all common papers, such as news and low grade books ; 
and the bulk of paper made is no doubt of this character. 
They are especially important, not only as being more active 
in sizing than neutral or basic alum, with the same, or larger, 
percentage of sulphate of alumina, but are particularly use- 
ful in developing the aniline blue employed in common 
papers for the purpose of correcting the color. Acid alums 
are also useful in sizing when the water employed is at all 
hard, as the free acid more or less neutralizes the hardness 
of the water. The best type of a concentrated acid alum is 
Harrison's " Lion" alum, which contains from 52 to 55 per 
cent, of neutral sulphate of alumina and from one to three 
per cent, of free acid. This alum is used with the greatest 
success by numbers of manufacturers of common papers, such 
as news and low grade book papers. 

" Aluminous cake" is used in many mills as a substitute 
for alum. If aluminous cake consisted entirely of sulphate 
of alumina it would be a most valuable substitute for alum 
in the sizing process, but the great objection to it for fine 
and colored papers is that it sometimes contains an excess of 
free sulphuric acid and soluble iron ; the sulphuric acid not 
only discharging some colors from the pulp but also destroy- 
ing the brass wire-cloths of the paper machines. 

The solution of either alum or aluminous cake is prepared 



ENGINE SIZING. 419 

in a lead-lined receptacle of suitable size, and furnished with 
a pipe for heating the contents of the tank by steam. 

The quantity of alum or aluminous cake used varies with 
the sulphates themselves and with the class of pulps to 
•which they are added, and as a large number of vegetable 
and aniline colors are brightened by sulphate of alumina it is 
desirable for many kinds of colored papers to add the solu- 
tion of alum or aluminous cake to the pulps in quantities 
which will be in excess of those required for precipitating 
the resin upon the fibres. 

Litmus papers may be employed to detect a surplus of 
either resin soap or sulphates in the pulp : if, after the 
incorporation of the sizing with the pulp it turns red litmus 
paper blue, the proportion of alum or aluminous cake is 
insufficient, and for uncolored papers these materials should 
be increased until the pulp turns blue litmus paper red. 
Practical experience is always the best guide in regulating 
the proportion of alum and other chemicals to be used, for 
the reason that there is such a difference in the strength of 
various alums, etc., employed, and in the nature of the 
wash-water, etc., used in various mills, that directions which 
would prove effective in one case might result disastrously 
in another. 

We could here again remark that neither the solution of 
resin soap, alum, nor any other chemical should be run into 
the engine without being previously strained, either through 
a wire gauze or flannel cloth, and the size, alum, kaolin, 
coloring matters, etc., should be accurately weighed or other- 
wise determined. 



420 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Various substances have been employed in special mills 
as a substitute for resin in the sizing- process ; but as most of 
these lack that most important requisite — economy — none of 
them have as yet come into extended use. Wax dissolved 
with a concentrated solution of caustic soda and precipitated 
with alum has been proposed, and makes an excellent size, 
but its costliness would confine its use to the highest grades 
of fine papers. The addition of about 12 pounds of gum 
tragacanth to each 500 pounds of resin has been proposed 
and used in preparing some kinds of engine-sized papers, 
and imparts to them, it is claimed, an appearance resembling 
tub-sized papers. 

Bleaching Resin and Preparing Size therefrom. 

The following method of preparing resin size was patented 
in 1868, by Mr. Thomas Gray, of London, Eng. 

Operating on any quantity of resin, say eight hundred 
pounds, throw into a copper or sheet-iron boiler forty gallons 
of water ; dissolve into it, in heating, about seventy pounds 
of salt of soda, or other alkaline salt, agitating and stirring 
the mixture till perfect dissolution of the alkaline salt occurs. 

When this result is attained, gradually add the resin in 
small quantities, stirring the material, and waiting till all is 
completely dissolved before throwing in any more. 

When the whole is thoroughly mixed turn off the steam, 
and the first operation being over proceed with the prepara- 
tion of the size. 

Having previously dissolved forty pounds of common salt 



SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 421 

in fifty gallons of cold water, take a boiler twice or three 
times more capacious than that used for preparing the resin, 
pour in together with the resin, yet hot, one-half part of the 
salt water prepared, adding thereto thirty gallons of cold 
water. 

Then apply heat, stirring the mixture by means of a 
spattle, and a homogeneous whitish mass will soon be 
obtained. 

Continue stirring until the mixture assumes a very intense 
dark color, much like that of wine, which change is pro- 
duced by the perfect union of the prepared resin and the salt 
at that moment. 

Let the mixture settle, and afterward draw off the liquid 
portion. Then add some cold water and the remainder of 
salt water and allow the mixture to again settle, and after 
decanting the supernatant liquor the mixture is ready for 
use. 

Surface Sizing or Sizing in the Sheet and in the Web. 

Papers to be used for writing purposes are commonly coated 
with animal size, which is as colorless as possible in order 
not to injure the color of the paper. 

Hide and skin trimmings, cartilages, and membranes from 
animals slaughtered for food or to supply the hides and skins 
used for the manufacture of leather; hog, hare, and rabbit 
skins, the hoofs and ears of oxen, sheep, and goats, parch- 
ment refuse, eel-skins, etc., form the principal sources of 
supply from which the materials used for the preparation of 



422 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

animal size used in the manufacture of writing papers are 
derived. 

The treatments which the materials receive in the prepara- 
tion of size vary with their nature and condition and the 
variety and grade of papers to which the size is to be applied. 

Speaking generally, and having in view the sizing of 
sheets of paper by the hand method of sizing, the materials 
named are usually washed, then steeped in lime-water, and 
afterwards perfectly cleansed from it by washing in acidulated 
and then in pure water. 

In order to convert the fat into an insoluble lime soap, the 
material is next gently boiled in eight or ten times its weight 
of water for about six hours, during which time it is sprinkled 
with a small quantity of very finely powdered lime ; the 
boiling point being completed as soon as a drop of the liquor 
placed upon a cold porcelain plate solidifies to a jelly. 

There are next added to one hundred parts of the jelly thus 
produced two or three parts of alum previously dissolved in 
water, by which the size is coagulated and rendered inso- 
luble, and consequently is in a more suitable form for the 
sizing of paper. 

Sometimes the ready-made size of commerce is used. This 
is steeped for two or three hours in water and then dissolved 
in boiling water; 13 to 18 lbs. of size mixed with 4 to 6 lbs. 
of alum, dissolved in 22 gallons of water, is usually sufficient 
for sizing an average-size vatful of paper. 

The solution of size is brought to a temperature of 77° 
F., and then about 100 sheets of paper are dipped into it at 
one time, and so moved about that each sheet becomes coated 



SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 423 

with size on both sides ; they are next pressed so as to dis- 
tribute the size in the interior of the separate sheets, and 
afterwards separated and hung to dry on lines in a drying 
room. 

It is necessary that the drying should proceed slowly; cau- 
tion, however, must be exercised that desiccation is not con- 
tinued for a sufficiently long time to permit the decomposi- 
tion of the moist size. In summer thunderstorms induce 
the decomposition of the size, which becomes covered with 
mould, liquefies, and loses its glutinous properties. If the 
sheets of paper are too rapidly dried the size remains distri- 
buted throughout the body of the material ; but during slow 
desiccation the size as it dries is drawn, in company with the 
moisture, to the surface, where it forms an impermeable layer. 
Thus it happens that strictly animal sized papers if properly 
dried will blot if there has been an erasure or scraping of 
the surface. 

If the paper is to be sized in the web by the use of ma- 
chinery, the preparation of the size is conducted on a larger 
scale than has been just described. 

In large paper-mills the size is generally prepared in a room 
devoted to the purpose, and is commonly located near the 
machine, adjoining it if the latter is on the ground floor, and 
usually below the machine-room if it is on the second floor. 

The finest grades of light hide and skin clippings are em- 
ployed for No. 1 letter, papers ; but less costly stock is 
employed for the lower grades of animal-sized papers. 

In order to preserve the glue stock tanners and tawers 
macerate it in milk of lime and afterwards dry it, and as the 



424 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

clippings require to be freed from the lime the first treatment 
which the glue-stock receives after arriving at the paper-mill 
is to put it in large wooden tubs filled with water in which 
it is allowed to remain for several days in soak. 

If the paper-mill is situated on the banks of a stream the 
glue-stock is sometimes packed in large willow baskets and 
the latter submerged in water by means of a travelling crane, 
and in this the stock is soaked and freed from lime. But 
the more desirable way is to soak the glue-stock in wooden 
tubs and then put it in a larger revolving wash-drum about 
five feet in diameter and ten feet in length, which drum 
should be driven by power and so constructed that it will be 
one-half immersed in a vat. The drum suitably covered 
with wood is filled with the necessary quantity of stock 
through a door, which is formed by hinging one of the boards 
which form the surface of the drum, and clean water being 
admitted .through one of the hollow trunnions the dirty water 
is allowed to escape through perforations in the periphery of 
the drum while it is being revolved. 

The objection to the glue-stock washing apparatus in com- 
mon use is that the stock is usually damaged by being broken 
up too much, and considerable loss results, besides from the 
fact that the small particles are allowed to escape with the 
wash water. Mr. W. A. Hoeveler has lately patented a 
washer by which the defects named are claimed to be reme- 
died and other advantages derived. 

Fresh waste, i. e., such as has not been limed and dried, 
mid which is sometimes purchased by paper manufacturers 
from neighboring tanneries, must be prepared as soon as 



SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 425 

possible after it arrives at the paper-mill, as otherwise it 
would taint the air, be attacked by rats and other vermin, 
and suffer injurious alterations by decomposition. 

The fresh waste is first placed in tubs filled with water in 
which has been dissolved 2 per cent., by weight, of caustic 
lime. It is best to allow the water to stand for a week or 
so before using it for the fresh waste. The length of time 
which the stock remains in the lime bath varies according 
to the material : trimmings from calf-skins requiring fi'om 
10 to 15 days; sheep-skins, 15 to 20 days; and trimmings 
from heavy hides, such as ox, .25 to 30 days. The milk of 
lime should be renewed once or twice a week and thoroughly 
stirred. 

The material is washed in the washing drum after being 
removed from the lime, and is afterward spread out in the 
yard to drain and dry. When sufficiently dried the mate- 
rials are ready for boiling to glue, and can be stored until 
wanted. 

The glue stock, after being cleaned or prepared as has 
been described, is placed in a boiler of cast-iron, sheet-iron, 
or copper. Its capacity depends upon the quantity of raw 
material to be boiled at one time. It is best to have boilers 
holding from 100 to 400 pounds of raw material, and to 
place two or more of such boilers together. Hesting upon 
the bottom there should be a stopcock for drawing off the 
gelatinous solution. From 1 to 3 inches above the bottom 
of the boiler there should be a perforated and movable false 
bottom supported by flanges, thereby preventing direct con- 



426 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tact of the materials with the heated bottom of the boiler, 
and obviating injury by scorching. 

The glue stock having been placed in the boiler, water is 
poured over it and steam admitted under the false bottom ; 
but the water should at no time be allowed to come to a 
boil, care being observed not to allow the temperature to 
exceed 200 F., which should be maintained from 10 to 18 
hours, the time depending upon the nature of the raw 
material. As the gelatinous solution is formed it is drawn 
off from the boiler into wooden tubs, and is at the same 
time carefully strained to remove impurities. 

Two or three extracts are made from the same lot of glue 
stock, all the solutions being mixed together in the receiv- 
ing tubs, where a solution of alum is added in such propor- 
tions as to be recognized by tasting the liquor. The object 
in view in adding the alum solution is to prevent the gela- 
tine from fermenting or decomposing, and as the danger 
from this cause increases with the higher temperature of the 
atmosphere, more alum should be used in summer than in 
winter. 

After the solutions cool they are ready for use, the gela- 
tine being removed from the receiving tubs and dissolved in 
a separate tub as required for use, the tub in which it is 
dissolved being provided with a steam pipe. The propor- 
tion of water (which should be only lukewarm) employed 
in dissolving the gelatine varies from one-quarter to one- 
half of the volume of the latter, the nature of the fibre 
and thickness of the paper regulating the proportion of 
water to gelatine; the concentration of the solution being 



SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 427 

greater for thin papers and weak fibres than for thick 
papers and strong fibres. 

The mechanism for supplying the size to the trough, 
through which the web of paper is passed, and the manner 
of running it over the Fourdrinier machine are so well 
understood that it is not necessary to enter upon a detailed 
description of either. 

The best method of drying paper after it is tub-sized is 
still an unsettled question among manufacturers of paper. 
In this connection we quote from an editorial in the ' Paper 
Trade Journal :' " When the paper is passed through the 
size-tub it is again wet; the fibres expand, and their hold 
on each other is relaxed. Now it must make a difference 
to the subsequent strength and quality of this paper whether 
it is hung up in a loft to dry or run over a drying machine. 
If it is hung in the loft no strain is put upon it, and the 
fibres are at liberty to shrink or slowly contract in all direc- 
tions ; whereas if it is run over a drying machine, consisting 
of from fifty to one hundred reels, the longitudinal strain 
prevents the fibres from shrinking and resuming their 
normal position in that direction. Attempts have been 
made to obviate this defect by regulating the speed of each 
section of the machine in such manner as to allow for the 
shrinkage ; but this only remedies the evil by preventing 
the paper from breaking as it travels over the machine. 
Everything else being equal, it would seem that loft-dried 
paper must be superior to that dried on the drying machine. 
Our home manufacturers indorse this view, inasmuch as 



428 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

they continue to prefer the system of loft-drymg to the less 
expensive machine methods." 

It is, of course, understood that papers which are surface 
sized may previously have been sized in the beating engine, 
and this method is mentioned under the head of " Double 
Sized" Paper. The methods employed for drying the papers 
will be found treated in Chapter XV. 

Hard-Sizing Paper in process of Manufacture by ad- 
ministering Vegetable and Animal Sizes successively 
TO THE Web before it is Dried upon the Heated 
Cylinders. 

The following composition and method of hard-sizing 
paper was patented in 1873 by Mr. X. Karchesld, of Belle- 
ville, N. J. The invention consists in submitting paper in 
the web, before it is dried, first to a bath of vegetable size, 
and then to a bath of animal size, both of peculiar com- 
position, and in removing the superfluous sizes by scraping. 
Also in drying the product upon the heated cylinders of the 
paper-machine, so that the complete operation of manu- 
facturing paper which is sized is conducted with only one dry- 
ing process, irrespective of whether the paper is more or less 
hard-sized or enamelled. The invention further consists in 
distributing the earthy matter contained in the vegetable size 
upon a web composed solely of paper-pulp, filling its pores 
and cavities, and thus producing an even surface upon which 
the animal size is subsequently deposited in a thin pellicle. 
Thus the making of the paper brittle is avoided, which brit- 
tleness is one objectionable result of mixing earthy matter 



HARD-SIZING. 429 

with the pulp, and preventmg the paper from absorbing 
animal size to such an extent as to become translucent. 
These sizes contain some novel ingredients, and their com- 
position is varied according to the various results sought to 
be accomplished. 

Mr. Karcheski's process involves the introduction between 
the drying-cylinders and the last pair of press-rolls, in a 
Fourdrinier or "cylinder" machine, of two vats or tanks, 
for containing vegetable and animal sizes respectively, each 
provided with a suitable device for scraping off the super- 
fluous size from the material operated upon. The first vat 
contains the vegetable size, consisting of bleached resin dis- 
solved by heat in the least possible quantity of alkalies and 
water, with the addition to the solution of a quantity of color- 
less earth and soap. The web of paper from the press-rolls 
passes through the size and absorbs the resin and soap, while 
the colorless earth fills its pores. 

When the paper is manufactured from new stock and is 
free from impurities and foreign matters, colorless earth in 
the first vat may be omitted, if increase in the weight ol 
paper should be objectionable. 

The excess of size is removed from the paper by scrapers, 
and the web then passes into the second vat, which contains 
the animal size, consisting of a solution of glue, alum, 
tallow, or other soap, colorless earth, and a trace of chloride 
of sodium. 

In combining these ingredients the proportions are not 
arbitrary. The operator will soon learn to vary them 
according to the quality of surface required, as to hardness, 
lustre, and enamel, and also according to the purity of the 



430 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER 



ingredients themselves, and the conditions attending their 
use. 

Care must be taken in all cases that a sufficient quantity 
of alum is present to neutralize the alkalies used in the pro- 
cess. The superfluous animal size is removed by scrapers, as 
before, and the web then passes on to the drying cylinders. 

The apparatus invented by Mr. Kerchesld, by means of 
which the web of paper is subjected to the process of hard 

Fig. 132. 




Fig. 133. 




sizing, coloring, or water proofing, is shown in Figs. 132 
and 133. 

Fig, 132 is a vertical longitudinal section, showing Ker- 



HARD-SIZING. 431 

cheski's apparatus interposed between the last pair of press- 
rolls, and the drying cylinders of a Fonrdrinier machine, 
and Fig. 133 is a plan of the same. 

The dotted lines indicate the paper or other material 
under treatment, and the arrows indicate the direction in 
which it moves. 

The two vats, A and B, are interposed between the last 
pair of press-rolls, C C, and the drying cylinders D JD, o^ a 
Fourdrinier or cylinder machine. These vats are provided 
with guide-rollers, e e e, and carrying-rollers, //, for the 
purpose of conveying the paper or other material operated 
upon into and from the sizing compositions contained in the 
vats. Each vat is provided with adjustable scrapers, g g, for 
removing the superfluous size from the surface of the paper. 

In sizing paper and other materials which vary in strength 
of tenacity, arid in applying sizes which vary in consistency, 
it is necessary to regulate the tension to which the web is 
subjected by the scraping process ; hence the importance 
of the feature of adjustability, as applied to the scraping 
mechanism. 

From what we have previously stated it will be seen that 
by the present mode of sizing paper the web is in a wet 
state when introduced into the first or vegetable-size bath, 
so that the water it contains combines with the vegetable 
size. The fibre of the web it is claimed absorbs the resin 
and soap solutions, while the earthy matter fills the pores 
and cavities in the web, and the scraping operation pro- 
duces an even surface. The web being then introduced 
into the animal-size bath, and being incapable of absorb- 



432 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

ing any more liquid, simply receives upon its surface a thin 
pellicle of animal size, and the repetition of the scraping 
operation not only removes the superfluous size, but still 
further tends to equalize and smooth the surface of the web. 
The web, which then passes onto the drying-cylinders, is 
prevented, it is claimed, from adhering thereto by the pres- 
ence of the chloride of sodium contained in the size, and loss 
of size by evaporation during the drying process is prevented 
by the presence of the fatty acids in the size. 

Printing-paper manufactured by this process, while it is 
not increased in cost, it is claimed is greatly improved in 
quality in respect to superior smoothness, evenness of tex- 
ture, and capability of bearing writing or receiving even 
impressions from printer's types. '• Hard-sized pape.r," so 
called, i. e., writing-paper, it is claimed is not only improved 
in quality by this process of manufacture, but is greatly re- 
duced in cost. 

Heretofore there has been no successful process of hard- 
sizing paper in the web before drying it, and consequently a 
second drying operation has been necessary. By the present 
process the time and labor expended in the second drying 
operation are saved. In manufacturing writing-paper it is to 
be observed that the vegetable size of resin, alkaline soap, 
and colorless earth, which fills the pores of the web, as we 
have described, prevents the transliicency which is a charac- 
teristic of paper finished with purely animal size. 

To produce the hard surface required in writing-paper the 
following it is stated will be found to be an eff'ectual compo- 
sition of animal size, to be applied after the administration 



DOUBLE-SIZED PAPER. 433 

of the resin or vegetable size : Dissolve one and a half 
pounds of white soap in two gallons of water, and two pounds 
of strong white glue in two gallons of water, mix the two 
solutions, and add sufficient alum to neutralize the alkalies 
present, then add colorless earth and a handful of chloride 
of sodium. This size is to be used warm, say at a tempera- 
ture of about 120° F. 

Paper sized with this succession of resin and animal sizes 
it is claimed will be perfectly opaque and firm, and will 
have a hard, even surface. 

In manufacturing printing-paper the animal size is made 
weaker — that is, with a weaker solution of glue, printing- 
paper not requiring so hard a surface. 

" Double-Sized" Paper. 

Large quantities of writing paper are sized by the process 
called " double sizing." The pulp is sized in the beating 
engine with resin size and alum after the usual method. 
The pulp thus sized then passes into the stuff chest, and 
thence on to the paper machine. The paper, as it leaves 
the dry felt, then passes between two rollers, revolving in a 
vat containing animal size, thence over the dryers in the 
usual manner. Instead of drying on the machine the 
double-sized paper is usually taken wet from the machine 
and dried in drying lofts. 



28 



434 the manufacture of paper. 

Tub Sizing with Benzine and Eesin. 

The following process has been employed for sizing paper: , 
One and one-half pounds of resin are added to ten gallons 
of benzine or naphtha in a close vessel ; the resin quickly 
dissolves, after which the composition is ready for use ; but 
it is stated that the size is much improved in quality if 
allowed to rest for three or four days before using it. 

The quantity of size specified is claimed to be sufficient for 
about three hundred yards of paper, fifty-eight inches wide, 
and weighing twenty-five pounds to the ream, when cut into 
sheets 19 by 28 inches. 

The unsized paper, on leaving the drying cylinders, is 
passed through a sizing trough containing the composition, 
the rate of speed being about twenty feet per minute, the 
superfluous composition being wiped or scraped off from both 
surfaces of the paper and returned to the sizing trough. 

The paper thus sized should be air-dried, and it is stated 
to be usually sufficiently dry after passing through about ten 
feet of space to be calendered and cut up into sheets or made 
into rolls. 

Sizing the Surface of Printing Paper. 

Hover, in 1867, after numerous experiments, proposed 
the following process for sizing the surface of printing 
paper: 4 ounces of starch are dissolved in 240 ounces 
of water, and 12 ounces of commercial carbonate of lime, 
magnesia, or its equivalent are added to the solution, 
a small portion of glue being also added if desired. This 



MATERIALS USED IN" SIZING PAPER. 435 

size is applied to the surface of any of the papers usually 
employed for printing, and the paper being afterwards dried 
and calendered will be ready for use. 

This sizing may be applied to the paper after it is 
finished or during the process of its manufacture, while 
other materials than those alluded to may be used for 
sizing the paper ; the main object of the process being to 
impart to the surface of the paper a permanent coating of 
carbonate of lime, or of magnesia, or their equivalents. 

In 1869 Hover patented the following composition for 
treating paper, which compound he claims possesses the 
property of more thoroughly permeating and becoming 
incorporated with the " water leaf" than ordinary sizing : 
Seven gallons of ordinary glue sizing are mixed with one 
gallon of strong solution of acetate of lime. This sizing 
may be applied in the same manner as other sizing, and it 
is claimed for it that it not only renders the paper whiter 
but that it at the same time improves the surface. 

Materials used m Sizing Paper. 

Alum. 

Alum, in the narrower sense of the word, is such a 
double combination of two sulphates, which will always 
contain aluminium as a sesquioxide, when solutions of 
aluminium sulphate are brought together with sulphates of 
suitable simple oxides. According to the nature of the 
sulphate combined with the aluminium sulphate, the fol- 
lowing principal distinctions are made in the varieties of 



436 THE MANUFACTUEE OF PAPER. 

alum : Potash-alum, ammonia-alum, and soda-alum. Soda- 
alum is more readily soluble in cold water than the others ; 
but is not used in paper-making in the United States. It is 
not a permanent salt, deliquescing rapidly. For coloring pur- 
poses potash-alum is sometimes used, or as a substitute for 
ammonia-alum, or there may be employed a mixture of both 
in varying proportions. For the purpose of recognizing 
whether potash-alum is pure, rub a piece of it with caustic 
lime and moisten the mixture with water. The presence 
of ammonia will be readily detected by its characteristic 
odor. It is well for the better grades of paper to subject 
the alum to a test for iron before using it. This is readily 
effected, according to Prof Runge, by throwing a piece of 
alum to be tested into a solution containing 15| grains of 
potassium ferro-cyanide in 7 ounces of water. If the color 
of the surface of the alum remains unchanged it is free 
from iron, but in case blue spots make their appearance it 
contains iron. This test is entirely reliable for alum in 
pieces ; it is claimed to be equally reliable for pulverized 
alum and alum solution. 

Up to about the year 1870 crystal alum was used almost 
entirely as the sizing agent in paper manufacture. About 
the date named the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Com- 
pany introduced a concentrated "porous" alum manufactured 
under Mr. Henry Pemberton's patent. The company named 
possessed alumina as a residue from the manufacture of soda 
from the mineral cryolite. The process of manufacture con- 
sisted of simply treating the alumina with sulphuric acid, 
then running it on to a floor on which there was sprinkled 



MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 437 

more or less bicarbonate of soda ; the hot sulphate of alumina 
rapidly decomposed the carbonate of soda, causing the free 
carbonic acid to rise through the mass, giving the alum its 
porous properties, and absorbing into its composition the 
resulting sulphate of soda. This also served to neutralize 
whatever uncombined acid there may have, been present. 
Because of the large percentage of the sulphate of alumina 
contained in this alum, paper-makers were enabled to pro- 
duce the same results by using about one-half the quantity 
of it that they had previously used of crystal alum. The 
analysis published by the manufacturers shows some 53 per 
cent, of sulphate of alumina, whereas crystal alum contains 
from 36 to 39 per cent. ; and the quantities employed of the 
respective alums would be in about the ratio of these per- 
centages. This porous alum had been very generally intro- 
duced in all the better class of paper-mills in the United 
States by the year 1880. In the year 1879, Harrison Bros. 
& Co., of Philadelphia, acquired control of the Laur patent 
for the manufacture of a concentrated paper-maker's alum 
from bauxite, and that firm immediately erected a plant for 
the introduction of this article to the paper trade of the 
United States. Bauxite is probably the mineral richest in 
alumina ; the best varieties contain as high as 70 per cent, 
of anhydrous alumina, and the greater part of it is indus- 
trially available. The Laur patent principally covered the 
use of zinc for reducing and removing the iron, which is 
always present in bauxite, from the solution of sulphate of 
alumina made from it. The zinc used in the metallic state 
is dissolved by the sulphate of alumina solution, reducing 



438 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 

and removing the iron and neutralizing all the free acid. 
Alumina is such a peculiar substance, acting either as a base 
or an acid, according to the character of the substance 
opposed to it, that, while in the presence of sulphuric acid, 
it becomes a base ; in the presence of zinc oxide it appears 
to act as an acid, combining with the zinc as it does with 
the sulphuric acid. The compound known as " pearl" alum 
resulting from this treatment consists of sulphuric acid, 
alumina, and oxide of zinc, all perfectly soluble, and is the 
most powerful sizing agent yet offered to paper-makers. The 
aggregate of these materials is stated in the manufacturer's 
circular to be not less than 63 per cent. ; analyses show as 
high as 70 per cent. ; and the claim made by the manufac- 
turers that its sizing power is 15 to 20 per cent, greater 
than " Natrona" porous alum is generally admitted by care- 
ful paper-makers. At the present time this alum divides 
the honors with the " porous" alum, and " pearl" and 
"porous" are recognized as the two standard concentrated 
alums in the paper-making trade. "Pearl" alum is particu- 
larly neutral to colors ; ultramarine, which is destroyed by 
the weakest of acids, will remain unaffected by pearl alum 
for a long time. The inertness of pearl alum to colors like 
orange mineral is also very marked when compared with 
other alums. 

It has already been stated that it is the sulphate of alumina 
only which gives to crystal alum its value as a sizing mate- 
rial. Crystal alum contains but 36.31 per cent, of sulphate 
of alumina, the remaining 63.69 per cent, consisting of water 
and other inert material. It is on this account, that, for 



MATERIALS USED IN" SIZING PAPER. 439 

many years, crystal alum has been superseded in engine- 
sizing by the so-called " concentrated alums," which contain 
a much larger percentage of sulphate of alumina. The 
greater the amount of sulphate of alumina which any con- 
centrated alum contains the greater its sizing power. But 
it does not necessarily follow that a concentrated alum 
having the highest sizing power is the purest, and, therefore, 
the best alum. 

The best concentrated alum is that which contains only 
sulphate of alumina — it should contain no iron. An alum 
may contain iron and yet be perfectly white in its dry state. 
But such an alum (or mixture of sulphate of alumina with 
other substance), if it contains iron (though it may dissolve 
in water into a colorless solution), will, in time, assume a 
brown color. This brown color is due to the conversion of 
the iron it contains into ferric oxide or iron rust. 

It requires time to produce this brown color in a colorless 
solution of alum containing iron, and it also requires time 
to produce the same effect on paper that has been sized with 
an alum containing iron. In a perfectly white alum con- 
taining iron the latter is present as ferrous oxide, which by 
the action of air is transformed into ferric oxide or iron rust. 

For many years there have been, and are still, used by 
paper-makers enormous quantities of a concentrated alum 
known in the trade as "• Natrona porous alum," made by the 
Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia. 
This alum, made from pure hydrated oxide of alumina, is 
of uniform strength, and is very rich in sulphate of alumina. 
It contains neither zinc nor iron, nor any other material that 



44:0 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

can affect the purest white of the best and finest qualities of 
high grade paper. 

The practical paper-maker can easily distinguish the pre- 
sence or absence of iron in alum by dissolving half an ounce, 
more or less, in two or three ounces of water, and adding 
half as much clear "bleach liquor." Submitted to this test, 
Natrona porous alum throws down only a white precipitate 
of sulphate of lime, while the supernatant liquid remains 
perfectly colorless. The same test (bleach liquor) applied 
to any alum containing iron (though the solution may be 
colorless) will at once turn the solution brov/n and throw 
down a portion of the iron as a brown precipitate. 

Concentrated Alum as a Water Purifier. 

Although a paper-mill may have a su[)ply of water which 
is of excellent quality during dry weather, its water shed 
may be such that after rain the water is unfit for immediate 
use. In a few hours a clear brook of crystal purity may be 
converted into a running stream of dirty water. If it should 
run into the reservoir of a paper-mill in this condition the 
water would require many days to clear itself by settling in 
the natural way. It must, therefore, be " cleared" by artifi- 
cial means, and the only material that will effect the clearing 
(or deposition of the impurities held in mechanical suspen- 
sion) is sulphate of alumina. Crystal alum has been used 
for this purpose by paper-makers for many years. But, as 
has been, already stated, this material contains, in round 
numbers, only thirty-six per cent, of sulphate of alumina. 
Therefore, of late years, crystal alum has been superseded 



MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 441 

for clearing water by use of sulphate of alumina in a more 
concentrated form — a " concentrated alum." The quantity 
of sulphate of alumina required to clear water is very small, 
and therefore the sulphate of alumina should be in such form 
that it will dissolve very slowly. In engine sizing, where it 
is desirable that an alum should dissolve rapidly, alum should 
be in a porous or ground condition. But in such form it 
would dissolve far too rapidly for water clearing. It must, 
therefore, be concentrated and cast into large blocks, which 
present but little surface to the dissolving action of the water. 
Such blocks are either thrown into the reservoir of the water 
to be cleared, or, better, should be placed in a trough through 
which the muddy water runs into the reservoir. It must be 
remembered, that it is the sulphate of alumina only that does 
the clearing of the water. A concentrated alum, in blocks 
or cakes, for water clearing should contain neither iron, zinc, 
nor free acid. The Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Com- 
pany of Philadelphia, the makers of the Natrona porous alum 
already referred to, are also manufacturers of a concentrated 
alum in blocks, which admirably fulfils all the requirements 
of a perfect clearing alum. 

False Economy in the Use of Alum. 

The more advanced paper-makers of the present day have 
found that there is no economy in the use of too small pro- 
portions of alum. An excess of alum insures a more com- 
plete matting of all the fibre, and, in the end, a larger product 
of paper. If a poimd or two extra of alum per each one 
hundred pounds of paper produced can be made to yield — 



442 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

on account of the alum insuring the more complete collection 
of the stock — from two to five pounds additional weight of 
paper, the money expended for the extra alum is well in- 
vested. The competition of Harrison Bros. & Co. for the 
alum trade of paper-makers has led, no doubt, to a more 
thorough understanding of alum requirements on the part 
of the paper-makers than would have been acquired through 
their own volition. The firm named first showed that 80 lbs. 
of the "pearl" alum would do as much sizing as 100 lbs. of 
the heretofore strongest known alum — the " porous" — would 
eff'ect, leading to a gradual cutting down of the quantity of 
alum required. AVhen this quantity was cut down below a 
certain limit, other troubles would result which were not 
manifested so long as alum was used in excess. In admit- 
ting the advisability always to use an excess of alum in sizing 
there will still be proportionately less of the more concen- 
trated alums used than there would be of the weaker alum, 
and of crystal alums, and the strongest alum consequently 
is always the cheapest. When the alum is carried a long 
distance from the place of manufacture to the paper-mill, 
the item of freight becomes of serious importance. At the 
present time, owing to the great competition between the 
two leading alum-makers, the manufacture is concentrated 
almost entirely in and around Philadelphia; no other manu- 
facturing centre supplying, to any extent, the paper-makers' 
alum ; and in the city named the manufacture is narrowed 
down to four concerns — Harrison Bros. & Co., the Penn- 
sylvania Salt Manufacturing Company, and two others. 



MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 443 

Aluminium Sulphate. 

Neutral aluminium sulphate (AI23SO4) is prepared either 
by treating clay or bauxite with concentrated sulphuric acid, 
or from cryolite. In an anhydrous state it contains 30 per 
cent, of alumina and 70 per cent, of sulphuric acid. With 
eighteen equivalents of water it crystallizes into octahe- 
drons, or at a temperature of 32° F. into hexagonal rhom- 
bohedrons. Aluminium sulphate is soluble in double its 
weight in water. A solution prepared with the assistance of 
heat separates, on cooling, crystalline lamina of aluminium sul- 
phate (AI23SO4+ I8H2O). Aluminium sulphate is found 
in commerce in a nearly pure state, the best qualities con- 
taining only traces of iron, but from 0.5 to 2 per cent, of 
free sulphuric acid,^ which is injurious when the salt is to 
be used for paper-making purposes. The presence of free 
sulphuric acid may also be detected by adding to a solution 
of aluminium sulphate logwood tincture. The solution, if 
free acid be present, will be colored brown-yellow and deep 
violet if it is neutral. To make aluminium sulphate con- 
taining free sulphuric acid available add to a solution of it 
1 to 2 per cent, of zinc chips, the solution of which will be 
attended by a violent development of hydrogen. By the 
free sulphuric acid combining with the zinc, zinc sulphate is 
formed. An excess of zinc is dissolved with formation of 



' To test aluminium sulphate for free sulphuric acid compound, according to 
Edward Donath, a solution of it at an ordinary temperature with a few drops of 
potassium iodide and potassium bichromate, and add a little bisulphate of carbon. 
If free acid is present the iodine is liberated and the bisulphide of carbon, on 
shaking, assumes a beautiful violet color. 



444 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

zinc sulphate and separation of basic sulphate of alumina. 
Instead of zinc chips 1 to 2 per cent, of sodium carbonate 
may be used. 

Aluminium sulphate or alum cake is found in commerce 
in the United States, generally in the form of powder, ex- 
cepting when prepared in a very dense form used in the 
settling ponds of paper-mills. By boiling aluminium sul- 
phate with water, it is gradually and completely dissolved, 
and yields a colorless fluid with an acid reaction. The 
solution can be advantageously used in all cases where 
alum was formerly employed, especially if it contains no 
excess of sulphuric acid, as it constitutes the only com- 
ponent part of alum which makes the latter valuable to the 
paper manufacturer. 

English cakes have always been imported in the form of 
lumps or blocks, but American manufacturers reduce theirs 
by chipping or powdering to a more or less comminuted 
state, in which state the aluminium, sulphate is much more 
serviceable to the paper-maker. The Harrison " Lion" 
alum is a fair example of a high grade sulphate of alumina, 
which is chipped so as to be in a state readily soluble. This 
alum is soluble without residue. Another class of alumi- 
nous cakes is made by boiling together the alumina-giving 
material and sulphuric acid, and allowing the entire mass to 
harden into a cake, containing all the insoluble material of 
the alumina mineral. . This insoluble material is generally 
silica or silicate of alumina, which has not been acted on by 
the acid. If the alumina mineral contains this silica in a 
coarse state, it gives a sandy residuum, which may be the 



MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 445 

cause of a great deal of trouble to the paper-maker, cutting 
his wires and injuring the machinery generally. When, for 
very common paper, such as binder's boards, building papers, 
etc., it is desirable to have a cheap alum, and this sort of a 
cake is selected on account of its low price, the buyer is 
caiitioned to select such a one as will give this insoluble 
residue in the finest possible state, for all medium and good 
classes of papers, the alums which are soluble without resi- 
due are, in the end, the best. 

Resins. 

The resins used by paper-makers vary greatly in quality 
and in price, and are usually graded commercially as Com- 
mon to Good Strained, Good No. 2, Low No. 1, Good No. 
1, Pale, Extra Pale, etc., the first named being the most 
inferior in quality, and the other varieties increasing in value 
in the order named. To prevent injuring the whiteness 
of the paper, upon which much of the value of the best 
classes of paper depends, it is necessary that the purest resins 
be used. 

Of the different kinds of resins the American and French 
have the preference. They are the residues obtained in dis- 
tilling turpentine with steam in the preparation of oil of 
turpentine, and are usually known as colophony. This 
resin is either only slightly yellowish or quite colorless. 

Of course, the lighter and cleaner in color the resin is the 
better will be the quality and appearance of the papers to 
which it is applied. It may be that the resin at hand is 
dark, and contains many impurities. If so, it may be necessary 



446 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

to submit it to a purification, which is usually done by 
boiling- it with a solution of connnon salt, when the impuri- 
ties and much of its color are precipitated with the salt 
water. This boiling is often repeated a second or third time 
to insure a bright color. 

The resins are rarely ever approximately pure definite 
bodies, but are usually mixtures of sevcn-al analogous oxy- 
genated bodies in various proportions. Their chemical rela- 
tions arc at present but very imperfectly understood. 

Starch. 

For the paper-manufacturer a S})ecially pure and white 
starch is made. Of the best two \-arieties of starch used, 
corn-starch and potato-starch, the former is the cheaper in 
price, and the latter the better in quality. 

Neither variety should contain move than 18. per cent, of 
water, which is tested by the loss of a weighed quantity at 
230° F. The ash should not amount to more than three or 
four parts per thousand ; a larger quantity would indicate a 
fraudulent admixture. 

StocJi for Papcr-))ial'ei\s'' Sizii)g. 

Adamson's method of preparing stock for paper-makers' 
sizing is as follows : — 

Take ordinary glue-stock, such as the cuttings of raw-hide, 
bones, etc., which has been treated with lime or alkali in the 
usual manner, and wash this glue-stock with water until as 
much of the lime as possible has been removed. Then im- 
pregnate the stock with alum by steeping it in a solution of 



MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAI'KR. 447 

alum and water for from four to ten hours, or as long as the 
thickness and quantity of lime remaining may demand, 
after which drain off the solution, leaving the stock in a 
moist and swollen condition, in which state pack it into bar- 
rels, boxes, or bags, ready for transportation to, and use by, 
tlie consumers. 

The alum acts as a preservative, so that the stock can be 
kept for a considerable length of time without deterioration. 

As the stock thus prepared reaches the consumer while it 
still retains its moisture, it will readily yield to the disrolving 
action of heat and water, and can be speedily converted 
into the desired size, thereby avoiding the long-continued 
boiling, which has a tendency to discolor the size. 

The alum treatment has t?ie further advantage of neutral- 
izing the lime vvhicli has remained in the stock, and which 
would otherwise detract from the quality of the size. 

A further important action of the alum is to make the 
size limpid and transparent, and to render paper and other 
material to which it is applied partially water-proof. 

One of the main advantages of this process is, that the 
size-stock can be prepared and packed and forwarded directly 
to the consumer, thereby obviating the usual preliminary 
drying, which is costly, and frequently injures the stock. 

The proportion of alum to the water in the solution will 
in a great measure depend upon the character of the glue 
stock, as will also the time during which the stock is steeped 
in the water ; but the desired result may be attained by 
steeping ordinary raw-hide, clippings, bones, etc., for from 
four to ten hours in a bath in which the proportions are 



448 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

about three to five pounds of alum to one hundred pounds 
of wet unprepared gkie-stock. 

Water-proof Sizings for Paper. 

Sizing and Water-proofing Paper with a Compound consist- 
ing of Water, Soda, Lime, Lard or Tallota, Glue, Bichro- 
mate of Potash, and Linseed Oil. 

The following compound is designed to be incorporated 
with the pulp with a view to rendering the paper water-proof. 
The mixture is prepared as follows : Dissolve twenty-five 
pounds of soda in thirty-one gallons of water by boiling. To 
this liquor add gradually twelve pounds of recently burned 
lime, mixed in a small quantity of water. Let this boil about 
an hour, and then allow it to settle, and pour off the clear 
liquor, which should be a caustic lye of 36° Baurae. Melt 
fifty-six pounds of lard or tallow by a gentle heat, and add 
fourteen pounds of the above-named lye, stirring well, and 
not allowing it to boil. When thoroughly mixed, add four- 
teen pounds more of the lye, stirring constantly, and not 
allowing it to get to a higher temperature than 148° F. To 
this add fifty-six pounds of glue, dissolved in twenty-eight 
pounds of caustic lye, at 18° Baume, by a gentle heat. Stir 
well until the whole is a homogeneous paste ; then add six- 
teen ounces of bichromate of potash, dissolved in a small 
quantity of hot water, and finally add sixteen pounds of 
linseed oil. Stir continually for about half an hour, and then 
run it into a box, and keep it covered closely for about twelve 
hours. This size should be made a few days before using. 



WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 449 

By this method of makmg the size it is claimed that the 
glycerine of the fat is retained, and forms with the glue a 
compound very much like India-rubber, which adds greatly 
to the strength and elasticity of the paper. 

To use the size, dissolve three pounds of it in two gallons 
of water for a two-hundred-and-fifty-pound engine, and when 
thoroughly incorporated with the pulp add twenty pounds 
of alum and ten pounds of acetate of lead; or, in place of 
the alum and acetate of lead, add twenty pounds of sulphate 
of iron; or ten pounds of chloride of lime and one-fifth of a 
pound of bichromate of potash, or vary the proportions of 
these according to the nature of the pulp materials. 

When preparing the size for ledger or writing-paper omit 
the linseed oil, and instead use one ounce of lime, in the 
form of milk and lime, and two ounces of hyposulphite of 
soda, dissolved in a small quantity of hot water, to every 
pound of the size, and mix thoroughly. For straw paper, 
use the size with the oil, retaining the lime-water used in 
boiling the straw, using the alum as usual. For photograph- 
paper, prepare the size the same as for writing-paper, except 
that the alum is omitted in the engine, and instead two pails 
of milk of lime are used to the two-hundred-and-fifty-pound 
engine. 

Sizing with a Composition of Soda- Ash ( Garhonate of Soda), 
Resin, Chloride of Sodium, Linseed Oil, and Silicate of 
Soda. 

The following process has for its object to render the 
paper more or less impervious to ink, so that the ink will 

29 



450 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

lie up clear and distinct, and not be absorbed into the tissue 
of the paper ; also, for making the paper stronger, and of 
smooth and fine surface finish, at the same time improving 
the color of the paper, and for acting as a mordant for fixing 
the colors of the compound. The following is an example 
of the material and proportion of the same, and the manner 
of compounding them: — 

Soda-ash (carbonate of soda), three hundred pounds; twelve 
hundred pounds resin ; chloride of sodium (common salt), 
five pounds ; raw linseed oil, two gallons, or its equivalent 
vegetable oil ; silicate of soda, thirty-six gallons, gravity 28° 
Baume. 

The process of compounding these ingredients is as fol- 
lows, or substantially so : Take the three hundred pounds 
of soda-ash, and dissolve it in about eighty-five gallons of 
boiling water, and allow the solution to settle. The solution 
is then siphoned off into any suitable vessel, the precipitate 
xemaining in the bottom of the vessel in which the solution 
was effected. This precipitate is utilized for destroying the 
fatty or animal matter in boiling rags. The twelve hundred 
pounds of resin is reduced to a powder, which is then added 
slowly and under constant stirring to the soda-ash solution, 
after the solution is raised to a boiling point, and the boiling 
is then continued for about one hour. Then is added the 
chloride of sodium (common salt). This mixture is continued 
to be boiled until a chemical union is formed of the said 
alkaline solution, resin, and common salt. While in this 
heated state next combine with the mixture the two gallons 
of linseed or other equivalent vegetable oil, thoroughly in- 



WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 451 

corporating it therewith. Now add the silicate of soda slowly 
to the mixture, constantly stirring the same all the while, 
continue the boiling for about thirty minutes after all the 
ingredients are mixed together. It is then drawn off into 
suitable vessels for use. 

The practical application of this sizing for the purpose 
specified is as follows : Of this sizing compound take from 
one to three quarts, and dissolve it in about a pailful of 
boiling water, and add it to the pulp that will make about 
one hundred pounds of paper. To this compound and pulp, 
when thoroughly mixed in the beating-engine, add from 
three to four pounds of alum dissolved in water. The pulp 
thus treated and having attained the proper consistency is 
now run off into receivers, from which it is taken on to the 
machine when the paper is formed. 

Water-proofing Buildhig or Sheathing Paper icith a Compo- 
sition consisting of Besin, Paraffine, and Silicate of Soda. 

This composition for water-proofing paper consists of the 
following ingredients, combined in the proportions stated, 
viz : Resin, 50 per cent. ; parafl[ine, 45 per cent. ; silicate 
of soda, 5 per cent. These ingredients are thoroughly 
mingled by heating them together, and by agitation. 

In using the above-named composition it is placed in a 
suitable open tank, to which heat is applied in any conve- 
vient manner, so as to keep it hot while being used. 

The paper to which the composition is applied is mainly 
building or sheathing paper. The latter is taken in the 
condition in which it comes from the paper-machine, being 



452 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

quite dry. A strip or strips of the paper, from a roll or 
other convenient holder, are conducted and drawn through 
the tank of hot composition, and upon emerging from the 
tank the paper passes between suitable rolls, which press 
any surplus composition from it, leaving it hard and smooth. 
The proportions of resin, paraffine, and silicate of soda 
previously named are employed generally for the purpose 
just described ; but in some cases, according to the solidity 
of the texture of the paper to which they are applied, the 
proportions of resin and of paraffine are varied from five to 
fifteen per cent, from those stated, but about five per cent, 
of silicate of soda being retained. Thus the proportions of 
resin and paraffine may vary, under such conditions, between 
fifty and sixty-five per cent, of the former, and between 
forty-five and thirty of the latter, making a composition 
consisting of said ingredients by which it is claimed the 
paper is rendered water-proof and durable when exposed 
to the weather, and by the combined effects of such ingre- 
dients the proper degree of water-proofing effect is produced 
and a surface-finish both smooth and hard is obtained. 

Method of Applying Paraffine to Paper and Straichoard. 

The following process is intended to facilitate methods 
of applying paraffine and similar substances to paper 
or strawboard, such, for instance, as paper cartons or 
boxes used for packing sensitive articles, as tea, coffee, or 
spices, and separating frames or mats used for packing pho- 
tographers' " dry-plates," the sensitive film upon which is 



WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 453 

liable to injury by moisture or chemical substances which 
may be contained in the paper or board. 

The process constituting this invention, which is that of 
Mr. Warren B. How, of Chicago, 111., consists, essentially, 
in dipping the article to be treated in a bath of melted 
paraffine or otlier substance similar in its characteristics 
when the article is at a temperature lower than the melting- 
point of the paraffine, and promptly removing it from the 
bath, whereby the adhering paraffine is prevented from 
entering the body of the article to any considerable extent, 
and practically forms by congealment only a thin coating or 
film upon its surface, and then subjecting the article to heat 
above the melting-point of the paraffine until the former 
has been brought to substantially the same temperature 
throughout, and the superficial paraffine is thereby caused to 
sink into the paper or board. 

It has been proposed heretofore to treat articles of paper 
or strawboard with paraffine or similar substances by a pro- 
cess in which the article is first heated to a temperature 
higher than the melting-point of paraffine, and then im.- 
mersed in such heated state in the bath of melted material. 
In this older process the article, being when dipped in the 
bath in condition to readily absorb the melted material, will 
become fully or substantially saturated, and will also, in 
addition to the substance absorbed, be covered by a dis- 
tinctly visible coating of surplus material, forming a con- 
siderable external body thereon. The subsequent heating 
of the article for the purpose of removing this surplus mate- 
rial has been found to leave the article with a greasy surface, 



454 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and not one of a dry, smooth texture and even color, such 
as may be obtained by the process herem described, and 
claimed as new. The inventor of the present method states 
that he has found by experiment that the quantity of paraf- 
fine deposited in the form of a coating upon the article by 
dipping it when at a temperature lower than the melting- 
point of the paraffine will be less than will serve to com- 
pletely saturate paper or board of the usual thickness used in 
making boxes or other articles intended for packing merchan- 
dise, so that when the article is afterwards heated for causing 
the absorption of the said coating a less quantity is present 
than will fully saturate the paper, and when absorbed will 
leave the article with a smooth, dry surface, and one which 
is not objectionably greasy to the touch or harmful to the 
contents of the package by reason of an excess of paraf- 
fine. The article will be quickly removed from the bath, 
because if allowed to remain a sufficient time therein to 
become heated through, the paraffine will soak into and fill 
the paper or board, with the same objectionable result which 
follows from previously heating the article, to wit, of apply- 
ing an excess of paraffine. That portion of the bath sub- 
stance which strikes and to a slight extent enters the paper 
in this brief dipping of the article is congealed by the lower 
temperature of the paper with which it comes in contact, 
and, the article being promptly removed from the bath, 
instead of being itself heated by the liquid, it cools the 
latter, and insures, as stated, that an adhering coat shall be 
practically confined to the external surface of the article. 
The appliances employed in the present process may 



WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 455 

obviously be of the ordinary construction, any form of oven 
or hot-air chamber being all that is required for the heating 
which follows the dipping. It is to be understood, of course, 
that the paraffine coating may either be allowed to cool and 
become solidified after dipping and before the heating of the 
article, or that the article after being dipped may be imme- 
diately heated to cause the absorption of the coating, the final 
result being the same in either case. 

Treating Paper with Ozocerite, 

The following process consists in saturating paper with 
a natural bitumen or wax known as "ozocerite." The 
object is to supply meat and fish venders with a paper 
which will be water-proof, and which at the same time 
will not impart to the article inclosed within the paper dis- 
coloration or a disagreeable odor. 

Paper has heretofore been rendered water-proof by means 
of paraffine, which answers the purpose well ; but owing to 
its cost it has not come into general use. Paper has also 
been rendered water-proof by means of coal-tar and its pro- 
ducts ; but, owing to its offensive odor, it cannot be used to 
wrap provisions of any kind, and its use is necessarily con- 
fined to wrapping hardware or in wrapping articles to protect 
them from the ravages of insects. 

In carrying out the present process the inventor, Mr. 
Gharles A. Maxfield, of New York, N. Y., utilizes any of 
the well-known machines in the manufacture of roofing- 
felt, in which a heating-tank is provided, and devices for 
removing a surplus of the saturating material. He then 



456 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

places the ozocerite in the melting-tank and reduces it by 
heat to the desired consistency. The paper, which is in 
long strips or rolls, is then drawn through the melted or 
liquid ozocerite, and any surplus of the material removed 
therefrom. The paper may then be passed through a 
drying-chamber, so that it can be cut to the desired size 
and packed into reams and bundles ready for use. 

The prime object of this invention is to saturate the ordi- 
nary wrapping-paper used by butchers and meat and fish 
venders with a compound which will be odorless and color- 
less — that is, will not discolor the article — and at the same 
time render it water-proof and strong. 



COLORING. 457 



CHAPTER XIV. 

COLORING. 

Coloring is a special branch of paper-making and requires 
much practical experience, as mistakes made in the coloring 
of paper are difficult and expensive to remedy. A line of 
receipts for coloring paper are, of course, useful ; but it 
must be remembered that the ingredients and directions 
which will result in producing the desired color with one 
engine of pulp may not be so successful in another case 
when the pulp may be supposed to be of exactly the same 
nature. 

It is, therefore, well to understand something of the 
theory of coloring, and of the nature of the different coloring 
ingredients commonly employed; such knowledge will enable 
a practical man to quietly confront any problem which he 
may in the course of his operations encounter, giving at the 
same time an astonishing accuracy to his calculations for the 
elementary composition, as well as the production of colors 
and shades, which he desires to imitate. 

Light is the source of all color, and it is the result of the 
vibrating motions of a very subtle substance, which the 
natural philosophers term ether. 

The ether receives vibrations from self-lighting bodies, 
such as the sun, and spreads them in the same manner as 



458 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the air spreads sound, with this difference, that the oscillat- 
ing motions called light are brought forth many million 
times quicker than those of sound, because the ether is 
many million times liner than the air; consequently, the 
vibrations are more rapid and intensive. 

The light entering our eye excites the optic nerve, pro- 
ducing a sensation called vision, and thus light renders 
objects visible. 

Light itself is not a simple body, but is composed of 
various colors of which we distinguish seven by separate 
names. All the colors observed in the organic and inor- 
ganic world around us are derived by reflection from the 
different colors, of which the white light or sunlight is com- 
posed. When a ray of sunlight is admitted into a" dark 
room, and there split by a prism, there is observed upon the 
screen placed opposite to the hole a series of bright colors, 
consisting of violet at the top, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
orange, and red. This phenomenon is termed a spectrum. 
Apparently there are seven colors ; really there are twelve ; 
but there are only three primitive colors, namely, red, yellow, 
and blue, from which all others are derived. If we look at- 
tentively at a spectrum, we soon realize the fact that violet, 
indigo, green, and orange are the products of amalgamation of 
either two of the three primitive colors, namely, violet and 
indigo from red and blue, green from blue and orange, orange 
from yellow and red. When speaking of primary colors, here- 
after, it must be borne in mind that we refer to the colors of the 
spectrum. There exists no primary color substance, that is 
to say, a color representing nothing but itself, in the true 



COLORING. ■ 459 

sense of the word. In fact, if we compare all known dye- 
stuffs, we find that they always contam, besides the principal 
ones, more or less of some other color. This is not of course 
by bodily mixture, but their intimate atomic construction is 
such as to reflect more or less of the others, too, which are the 
component parts of the white light. In composing our 
shades for paper there are, in fact, only three primary colors 
at our disposal, that is, red, yellow, and blue. The modi- 
fications which these three colors are capable of undergoing, 
and the limitless combinations into which they can enter 
with each other, enable us to reproduce any required color 
or shade. It should be borne in mind, however, that in all 
cases, the dye-stuffs which are used for producing the various 
combinations of colors must be of such a nature as to allow 
their combination, that is, of their perfect embodying one 
into the other, if mixed in solution ; so that, after the paper 
pulp is colored, no separate colors can be distinguished upon 
the finished material. If we take three very bright artificial 
dye-stuffs, red, yellow, and blue, products of coal tar, better 
known as aniline colors, whose chemical composition allows 
their perfect union by mixing their solutions with one 
another, we can produce the twelve colors which a close 
examination and dissection of a spectrum discloses are con- 
tained in it. These colors are red at the bottom, and follow- 
ing in successive order upwards, red-orange, orange, yellow- 
orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, blue-green, blue, blue- 
violet, violet, and red- violet. Nine of these are binary colors, 
so-called from being composed of two of the three primary 
colors. If, in the transition from one prismatic color to 



460 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

another we were at each step to exchange only one hundred 
parts of the one for an equal quantity of the other, it is 
evident that infinitely more colors might he produced ; but 
these slight modifications would be hardly distinguishable. 
To our eye the whole color-scale would appear as an amalgam 
like the spectrum of a white light. But if it is considered 
that either of the two colors can be graduated, that is, pro- 
gressively changed from very dark, nearly dark, to light and 
very light, nearly white, it may readily be imagined that 
thousands of colors can be produced by this very simple 
means. The slightest alteration of white is at once per- 
ceptible ; while a considerable proportion of any other color 
can be added to black, before the modification becomes 
apparent to even the trained eye. 

All colors growing out of primary colors must be classed 
under that denomination, until they reach the compound of the 
primary with the nearly binary standard color. For instance, 
all colors originating in red are to be classed as reds, until 
the red-orange is reached, with this difference, however, that 
they are distinguished as first, second, third, etc., reds, 
according to the degree of modification the red has under- 
gone. Thus, if red is denominated as No. 15 on the side 
toward blue, it would signify that this red contains 15 per 
cent, of blue, as only with the addition of 25 per cent, blue 
the red becomes red-violet. The same nomenclature should 
be used for blues and yellows. From the above it is easy 
to see that a precise knowledge of this circle is sufficient to 
determine a color at once, thus enabling the paper colorer 
to reproduce it. The series of modifications of which any 



COLORING. 461 

primary or binary color is susceptible, is collectively called 
the category of that color, and it should be understood that 
the category is not identical with the shade, though the 
erroneaus application of this term is quite general and popu- 
lar. We know what a simple (or primary) color is, of 
which there are only three : red, yellow, blue ; we know 
also, that either two of these simple colors combined with 
one another form a binary (or secondary) color. But a 
shade is the result of the combinations of one binary color 
with one or two other binary colors, not belonging to the 
category of the former. Brown, for instance, is a shade. 
All the browns are oranges, shaded more or less with blue 
or violet. When a paper colorer is called upon to repro- 
duce a certain brown, the first thing he has to do is to ascer- 
tain what kind of orange is the base of it, whether red, pure, 
or yellow-orange. By contrasting various browns with one 
another, it is easy to determine whether the particular brown 
in question belongs to the reddish or yellowish category ; 
the category once defined there is no further difficulty in 
deciding upon the base of the coloring, whether reddish or 
yellowish-orange. This base is then to be composed, then 
to be shaded, and the mixture is ready for coloring the paper ; 
if the diagnosis of the orange is correct, and the shading 
carefully done, there should be no difficulty in producing 
the exact brown. From this it may be seen how indispens- 
able it is for the paper colorer to thoroughly understand his 
binary colors ; upon this knowledge depends, in fact, the 
whole art of producing the various shades ; the whole 
variety of binary colors being so many bases for all imagi- 



462 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

nable shades. The shades, m their turn, are again susceptible 
of infinite modification, that is, of being rendered light by 
the addition of water, or darkened by the chemical action of 
various salts. 

This brings us to the subject of " mordants," which, in 
addition to being bodies possessing the power of fixing cer- 
tain dyes upon materials to be colored, are also certain 
bodies which possess the properties of changing the natural 
color characteristic to coloring matters, thus producing dif- 
ferent shades with one and the same substance. The acids, 
chlorine, resin, and the alkalies contained in the pulp may 
act as mordants, and the paper-colorer has consequently to 
take their effect into consideration. 

The mordants commonly employed in paper-coloring are 
alum, green vitriol, nitrate of lead, and sugar of lead. Sodi- 
um carbonate (soda) is used by the paper-colorer chiefly for 
neutralizing purposes and for dissolving coloring-matters. 

Alum is used as a mordant with nearly all the colors 
employed for coloring paper. For a description of the 
various alums see p. 435 et seq. 

There are two chromates of potash known, viz., the chro- 
mate and the bichromate. Bichromate or acid chromate of 
potash occurs in commerce in beautiful red crystals, very 
easily soluble in water, and is employed in the preparation 
of reS, yellow, and green colors. 

Green vitriol {ferrous sulphate) is a combination of ferrous 
oxide with sulphuric acid. It is used as a mordant, espe- 
cially for black, gray, and violet, and also in the production 
of Berlin blue. 



COLORING. 463 

Lead nitrate (nitrate of lead) is prepared by dissolving 
litharge in nitric acid. It forms white crystals of a nause- 
ously metallic taste, which are difficult to dissolve in cold 
water, but readily so in boiling water. 

Plumhic acetate (sugar of lead) is prepared by dissolving 
litharge in vinegar, and evaporating the resulting solution. 
Both nitrate of lead and sugar of lead are poisonous, and 
when even handled carelessly produce symptoms of colic. 

As a rule it may be stated that acid mordants should be 
employed for aniline colors. Yellow prussiate of potash, 
potassium ferrocyanide^ is not used as a mordant for fixing 
other colors, but in combination with different salts of iron 
produces different sliades of the well-known beautiful blue 
color, Prussian or Berlin blue. Potassium ferricyanide^ 
red prussiate of potash, produces with ferrous salts a desira- 
ble blue color, Turnbull blue, which is similar to Prussian 
blue. 

We will mention some of the natural and artificial dye- 
stuffs which can be advantageously employed for producing 
the various colors and shades upon paper, and will enumerate 
them in their natural order, namely, red, yellow, blue, etc. 
It should be remembered, however, that there is quite a 
difference between the colored pulp in the beating-engine 
and the finished colored paper, and if a sample of paper is 
to be imitated in color it will be necessary to have them in 
the same condition as to moisture. The most expeditious 
way is to reduce a piece of the colored sample paper to pulp 
by macerating it in water. Some of the pulp can be taken 
from the trough of the enghie and both the sample and the 



464 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

pulp under treatment can be squeezed so as to reduce both 
to about the same state of moisture. It can then be readily 
determined whether it will be necessary to add additional 
coloring matter to the pulp in the engine. If the pulp is 
too highly colored it will be difficult to remedy the mistake, 
and it is best to be on the safe side by not employing too 
much coloring matter at first. 

It will be noticed in the following receipts that the pro- 
portion of size to be used with certain colors is not specified, 
and that it is often suggested to first mordant the pulp and 
color it afterwards. This is the rational way, but for low 
and medium grades of paper it will usually be found more 
expeditious to add the mordant to the coloring mixture. 
Such points are matters for practical consideration; the object 
of the present chapter is to suggest combinations of materials 
which can be used to produce various colors and shades, the 
proportions of the ingredients to be used and the manner of 
applying them must be determined by experience as the same 
directions would not apply to any two mills. 

A great many of the coloring matters which we shall now 
enumerate are not now used in practice, the object being to 
suggest those capable of employment. 

Red Shades on Paper. — The natural dye-stuff's capable 
of producing red colors and shades on paper are cochineal, 
and the numerous red woods usually comprised under 
the name of Brazil wood, kermes grains, etc. Cochineal 
and kirmes grains are derived from the same species of 
insect, as is also the so-called lac-dye, the coloring matter in 
all of them being identical. The ordinary Brazil wood is 



COLORING. 465 

derived from Ca'salpinia hrasiUenisis, a native of Brazil. 
Other A^arieties of red wood are Jamaica wood, Nicaragua 
wood, Pernambuco wood, Santa Martha wood, and Sapan 
wood, the latter yielding a somewhat lighter coloring mate- 
rial than that derived from the other red woods which we 
have named. The extracts of these woods, or rather the 
coloring matter, the so-called Braziline, may be employed 
for amaranth, crimson, purple rose, and similar shades, but 
it should be remembered that the red colors produced from 
these woods alone are not at all fast. The coloring matter 
is extracted by boiling the woods, and the extract so obtained 
is soluble in water. Red upon paper may also be produced 
by ammoniacal solution of carmine, or of cochineal, or of 
cochineal heightened by a solution of tin, or by means of a 
decoction of Brazil wood and alum in malt liquor. Lobster 
red, rose red, scarlet, crimson, and Morocco red, may be 
produced upon paper by employing cochineal extracted by 
diluted ammonia ; or carmine, lac-dye, drop lake, and aqua- 
fortis can be used in case the cochineal does not answer. 

Paper when first colored with decoctions of Brazil wood, 
freshly prepared, has a perceptible touch of orange, but on 
exposing the colored paper to the action of the air the orange 
shade disappears leaving only red; it is possible to impart a 
bluish tone to paper colored with Brazil wood by the use of 
alkalies. Cochineal red of a magnificent shade may be 
applied to paper, the color being best prepared by tying the 
cochineal in small linen bags and then boiling in water con- 
taining about two per cent, of spirit of sal-ammoniac, or liquid 
ammonia can be used in lieu of sal-ammoniac. Scarlet may 

30 



466 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

be produced by applying an extract of carthamus. The 
extract of carthamus is dissolved in a solution of one part 
of tartaric acid in sixty parts of water. 

Red Sanders wood and barwood cannot be extracted, or, 
rather, they are difficult to extract with boiling water, but 
with alcohol and sulphuric ether their coloring matter is 
readily obtained, and it possesses the advantage of being 
much faster than any of the red-wood decoctions which we 
have heretofore named, and is especially valuable when 
such shades as rose are desired. 

Hypernic can be employed in preparing red dye-stuffs for 
coloring paper, it is not, as is commonly supposed, a species 
of any particular variety of wood, but is composed of a mix- 
ture of chips of numerous varieties of red wood ; but it is 
employed the same as any of the single species for coloring 
red, and can also be employed for mixed colors. 

Extracts of the various woods which we have mentioned 
are regular articles of commerce, and can be employed in 
lieu of the various woods. A few years since it was a com- 
plaint among persons whose business compelled them to 
use dye-stuffs that they could not always depend on the 
extracts of dye-woods ; there may have been just grounds 
for their objection at that time, but since the introduction of 
improved processes and machinery it is now possible to pro- 
cure highly satisfactory extracts of dye-woods. 

In order to produce a strong dye liquor from extract of 
Brazil wood, place two and a half pounds of extract in ten 
gallons of clear water, and boil it for ten minutes, a copper 
kettle being used if the boiling is conducted over an open 



COLORING. 467 

fire ; but if boiled by steam a wooden tub or barrel should 
be used. When the boiling has proceeded for the length 
of time specified, add in small quantities, and always under 
vigorous stirring, one-half ounce of potash and one-half 
ounce of soda ; the boiling should then be continued for 
about four or five minutes longer, after which the dye liquor 
so prepared should be drawn off into a separate barrel, and 
properly covered for use. The liquor can afterwards be 
diluted to any desired degree with water. 

Venetian red (ferric oxide), when thoroughly washed, is 
used for delicate brown colors, and is employed in its mer- 
chantable form for wrapping and other low grades of paper. 

Aniline red colors of various kinds come into commerce 
under the names azaleine, fuchsine, magenta, mauve, roseine, 
rubine, solferino, tyraline, etc. ; but although they may differ 
very greatly in the manner of their manufacture, they are 
all produced from the salts of a base termed "' rosaniline," 
and they find their way into trade in the form of greenish, 
granular crystals having a metallic lustre, but often the pro- 
duct has the form of a red powder. The acetate of rosani- 
line, which is commonly known in the United States and in 
England under the name of fuchsine, is readily recognized, 
as it forms crystals which are especially beautiful ; but in 
Germany the acetate is known under the name of roseine, 
and the hypochlorate of rosaniline is known as fuchsine. It 
is necessary to exercise considerable precaution in buying 
crystallized fuchsine, as it is not uncommon to find it con- 
siderably adulterated, sugar crystals being especially used 
for this purpose, and all aniline colors in the form of 



468 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

powders, are also liable to be greatly adulterated. When 
unadulterated, fuclisine may be dissolved quite easily in 
hot water, and very easily in acetic acid, alcohol, wood- 
spirit, or even in a solution of tartaric acid, but it is only 
sparingly soluble in water of an ordinary temperature. The 
solution which pure fuchsine yields is of a beautiful purple- 
red color, and the additions of alkalies or strong acids dis- 
color them ; but when the red color of the solution is dis- 
colored by the addition of an alkali, it may be restored by 
adding an acid, and when discolored by strong acid the 
color may be restored by adding water. 

Azaleine, knoAvn chemically as the nitrate of rosaniline, is 
not often brought into commerce, and it may be readily dis- 
tinguished from the various other aniline reds by means of 
the cherry-red color of its solution. 

Diamond magenta, or fuchsine, comes into commerce in 
the form of large crystals having a greenish lustre, and it 
possesses about the same properties as fuchsine, but an addi- 
tional advantage is that it is non-poisonous. 

Rosaniline colors are not fast, but with the exception of 
this class the other aniline products haA^e probably found a 
permanent employment for coloring paper, their brilliancy 
and freshness especially recommending them. Another 
series of colors are derived from the creasote in coal tar, and 
these are known chemically as phenol colors, and one of the 
most important of this class is phenol red, or corralline, 
which is a magnificent red coloring matter, and comes into 
commerce in the form of a red powder which is with diffi- 



COLORING. 469 

culty soluble in water, but is readily dissolved in alcohol, 
and yields a scarlet solution. 

Coralline is also soluble in alkalies, but the solutions thus 
obtained change very readily, but it is not changed by acids. 
A beautiful color is imparted to pulp previously mordanted 
with alum by means of coralline. In order to prepare the 
color it is first dissolved in alcohol, after which some caustic 
soda is added, and the alkaline solution thus prepared is 
mixed with water, which should be sufficiently acidulated 
with acid in order to fully neutralize the soda. A great 
objection to the employment of coralline is that the color 
produced with it will not stand exposure to light. 

Aniline red occurs but seldom in commerce in the form 
of a paste or in solution. 

Yellow shades on loaper can be produced with various 
vegetable, mineral, and aniline coloring matters. 

Barberry-yellow may be produced by treating the pulp 
with a liquor produced by boiling two pounds of barberry 
root and six ounces of alum in every seven gallons of water. 
It has been stated that the fruit of the barberry might be 
employed, but this, however, is not the case, the color being 
derived from the root and the bark of the shrub. A decoction 
of the ground bark and root can be employed for the pur- 
pose of producing a lustrous lemon color when the paper- 
pulp has been previously mordanted with alum, an addi- 
tional mordant or striker of tin salt being also employed in 
the production of the latter color. 

Quercitron-yellow can be produced in any desired shade 
by the use of a decoction of quercitron bark. 



470 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

E-ust-yellow can be produced with a liquor made by boiling 
two pounds of annotto, and four ounces of potash in every 
nine gallons of water. There are various, grades of annotto, 
such as the French, East and West Indian, Brazilian, etc., 
but the first named is most valuable and comes into com- 
merce neatly and securely put up in tin cans, and this grade 
of annotto is distinguished by its bright red color and its 
peculiar odor, which somewhat resembles carrots. 

In addition to the substances which have been named, 
fustic, alder bark, bablah or babool, sumac, saw-wort, 
tumeric, dyer's broom, and the American golden rod, can 
be used for producing various shades of yellow grays, and 
orange red on pulps previously mordanted with alum. 
Canary-yellow can be produced with weld. 

Lemon yellow can be produced by digesting one part of 
tumeric in four parts of ordinary spirit of wine. 

Mineral Pigments. — Chrome yellow can be produced by 
iirst adding to the pulp a solution of two ounces of bichro- 
mate of potash or bichromate of soda in one quart of water, 
and afterwards adding a solution of one ounce of sugar of 
lead in one quart of water. The basic acetate of lead may 
be used in lieu of acetate of lead, and is prepared by boiling 
a solution of plumbic acetate with an excess of litharge, and 
comes into commerce in solution under the name of vinegar 
of lead. The poisonous properties of these salts should not 
be forgotten. Orange mineral may be used to intensify the 
chrome yellow, or orange. Yellow ochre should also be 
mentioned among the mineral pigments employed for color- 
ing paper. 



COLORING. 471 

Aniline-yelloio, ordinary, is now coming into use as a sub- 
stitute for chrome yellow, and like most aniline colors it is 
more soluble in hot than in cold water. 

Chrysaniline is a yellow powder which is not in the 
slightest degree soluble in water, but when dissolved in 
alcohol, it gives a beautiful yellow color. 

Aurin is the commercial name usually applied to the 
hydrochlorate of chrysaniline, which is somewhat soluble in 
water and produces beautiful golden-yellow colors, and is 
readily recognized by its red-yellow needles. 

Zinaline comes into commerce in the form of a cinnabar- 
colored powder ; it is not soluble in water, but warm solu- 
tions of borax, sodium phosphate, or sodium acetate dissolve 
it. Zinaline is also soluble in alcohol and wood spirit, but 
water precipitates it from these solutions. The shades which 
it yields are a reddish-yellow. 

Blue Shades on Paper. — The number of blue coloring- 
matters applicable to paper coloring is not large. A dura- 
ble blue on paper is obtained by the use of mineral pigments, 
which produce a color offering greater resistance to air and 
moisture than that obtained by employing aniline colors. 

Prussian blue, or Berlin blue, is produced by the employ- 
ment of yellow prussiate of potash, which, on coming into 
contact with iron salts, produces a blue color. Prussian blue 
may also be obtained by somewhat varying the method of 
coloring, by employing a solution of ferric salts and ammo- 
nium oxalate, which is used to saturate the pulp, which is 
next treated with yellow prussiate of potash, and finally 
adding to the pulp a weak acid solution. When produced 



472 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

by either of the above methods Berlm or Prussian blue 
forms a fast color, which is destroyed only by alkalies, and 
is not affected by acids. 

Pulps which have been sized with vegetable (resin) size 
would injure these blues because of the alkaline nature of the 
resin soap, provided the coloring ingredients were added to 
the pulp before the alum solution was run into the engine 
troug-h, hence care should be taken not to commence the 
coloring until the sizing is complete. Any surplus of alum 
will be beneficial as it will act as a mordant and intensify 
the blue color. 

This blue color can also be prepared through the action 
of yellow prussiate of potash upon sulphate of iron, green 
vitriol, but in this case a slow oxidizing process is sometimes 
employed in the preparation of the coloring liquor. The 
oxidation, however, may be accelerated by using a solution 
of about one pound of bleaching powder to each two pounds 
of the green vitriol. Nitric acid is now much employed for 
hastening the oxidation, because of the bright shade of blue 
which it produces. But after using either of these oxidizing 
agents the blue precipitate should be washed with clean 
water several times. 

In commerce, yellow prussiate of potash is recognized in 
the form of yellow crystalline masses, the surface of which 
by exposure to the air loses water and is converted into a 
greenish-white powder. In water previously heated the salt 
is readily soluble, and is distinguished by its bitter taste and 
neutral reaction, and is poisonous. 

The so-called Turnbull blue, may be produced with red 



COLORING. 4T3 

prussiate of potash, which acts upon ferrous salts in the same 
manner as yellow prussiate of potash acts on ferric salts. Like 
the latter, red prussiate of potash is soluble in water, and it 
is poisonous. Yellow prussiate of potash is, however, prefer- 
able for producing blue colors as it is cheaper. 

Berlin or Prussian blue can be prepared by dissolving 
twenty-five pounds of yellow prussiate of potash and thirty 
pounds of sulphate of iron in hot water, in separate vessels, 
and pouring the two solutions into an empty barrel or other 
receptacle and thoroughly agitating the contents of the barrel 
and then filling it with water. Nitric acid or a solution 
of bleaching powder is then added, and the contents of the 
barrel are allowed to settle, and after several hours the super- 
natant clear liquor is decanted. The blue sediment in the 
bottom of the barrel is again agitated while fresh water is 
added, and the contents of the barrel are again allowed 
to settle. After being thus two or three times thoroughly 
washed the blue sediment is taken from the barrel and 
placed in another receptacle, which is afterwards filled with 
water and covered to protect from dirt. The blue liquid 
rnitst be always thoroughly stirred before furnishing the 
engine in order to produce the same results with each engine 
of pulp. The coloring can be accomplished in the beating 
engine by adding directly to the pulp ninety-five parts of 
sulphate of iron and one hundred parts of yellow prussiate 
of potash. 

BerHn or Prussian blue is usually employed for low and 
medium grades of paper, such as news, etc., and the blue is 
not injured even if the bleaching solutions are not thoroughly 



474 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

washed out of the pulps. The greenish tint sometimes objec- 
tionable in papers colored with Berlin or Prussian blue can be 
neutralized by the addition of a small proportion of red color. 

Ultramarine is employed for coloring the finer grades of 
paper. But this coloring material should not be added to 
the pulp until some time after the resin size and alum have 
both been added to the pulp in the beating engine. This 
method prevents the alum from affecting the color of the 
ultramarine blue. 

Cobalt blue, and a mixture of sulphate of copper and red 
extract, are sometimes used for imparting a blue color to 
paper pulp. 

Sky blue can be obtained by heavily mordanting the pulp 
with yellow prussiate of potash and afterwards applying a 
solution of acetate of iron. The mordant is prepared by 
dissolving eight pounds of yellow prussiate of potash in 
twenty-four gallons of water, the pulp being thoroughly per- 
meated therewith ; the solution of acetate of iron, which 
should be afterward added to the pulp, should contain four 
or five ounces of the salt to each gallon of water. 

Formerly aniline blues required the use of alcohol or wood 
spirit to dissolve them. At the present time, however, paper 
makers use only these aniline blues, which are soluble in 
water. 

The hJeu de Jumiere, which shows a pure color by candle 
light, and hieu de Parme, which is a darker blue, having a 
violet tinge, and showing a different color by candle light, 
are two principal shades of ordinary aniline blue. 

BJeu de Lyon dissolves only with difficulty in water, but 



COLORING. 475 

very readily in alcohol, and the blue color which it imparts 
to paper is very beautiful. In commerce this blue is readily 
recognized by its lustrous masses of copper-red color. 

Bleu de Paris (soluble aniline blue) is a powder having a 
blue-black color, with a slight copper lustre, and is soluble 
in water. It may be precipitated from its aqueous solution 
with acids or common salt. On account of its easy solubility 
in water, this blue may be especially recommended for color- 
ing some classes of paper. 

Phenol blue or azuline, is one of the direct products of 
creasote in coal tar. This blue coloring matter, with a shade 
resembling ultramarine, is a coarse-grained powder, having 
a slightly copper lustre ; it is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble 
in water. Phenol blue may be dissolved in alcohol, and 
after diluting with water containing tartaric acid be employed 
for coloring paper. 

Blue rags are still in some mills separately sorted out and 
employed where a very deep blue colored paper is required, 
and in such cases the rags are neither boiled nor bleached. 

Blueing Paper. — The bleaching operation invariably 
leaves the paper pulp with a yellowish tinge more or less 
deep according to the^iature of the material from which the 
pulp has been made, the care exercised, and the method of 
bleaching employed. This yellowish tinge is unpleasant 
when the finished paper is exposed to the light, and it is 
necessary to neutralize it. If blue alone were added the 
paper would present a greenish tint, consequently a little red 
color is necessary in order to impart to it a pleasant white 
appearance. Magenta and aniline blue are usually employed 



476 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

for low and medium grades of paper ; and carmine and ultra- 
marine for the finer grades. 

Mr. James Hogben, of Cleveland, O., patented in 1869 
the following process for the combination of aniline or other 
suitable red pigment with sulphate of iron, prussiate of 
potassa, and sulphuric acid, for the purpose of giving the 
desired tint or color to paper in the process of its manu- 
facture. 

The compound consists of the following ingredients and 
proportions, viz., sulphate of iron, sixteen pounds; prussiate 
of potassa, eight pounds ; sulphuric acid, eight pounds ; red 
aniline, two ounces ; making altogether thirty-two pounds 
and two ounces. 

Pulverize the sulphate of iron (green is preferred) and the 
prussiate of potash, and add the sulphuric acid. Mix it in 
a glass or stone vessel, then let it remain until it is digested 
or assumes a pasty condition. 

Dissolve the aniline in sulphuric acid (one ounce) or suffi- 
cient to liquefy the same. Add this to the compound of 
sulphate of iron, prussiate of potassa, and sulphuric acid. 
Then mix the entire mass thoroughly, dry, and grind the 
same to a powder. 

Previous to drying and grinding, in order to guard 
against any free acid that may remain in the compound, 
add one gallon of clear solution of caustic lime. An 
insoluble sulphate of lime will be formed, if any free acid 
remains, which sulphate of lime will not injure the paper. 

The compound or preparation, without the aniline, may 
be used first with the pulp, and the aniline or red pigment 



COLORING. 477 

subsequently added, while the pulp is in the engine or 
beaters, but allowing sufficient time for the preparation to be 
dissolved so completely as to leave no specks or spots upon 
the paper. 

Green Shades on Paper. — Dark green can be produced 
with a decoction consisting of eight parts of quercitron, two 
parts of logwood, one part of alum, and one part of green 
vitriol. 

Sap-green may be produced by digesting two parts of 
buckthorn sap in eight parts of spirit of wine; this decoction 
should be applied to pulp previously slightly mordanted with 
alum. 

Olive green can be produced with a decoction of four 
parts of quercitron bark, two parts of Hungarian fustic, and 
a small quantity of dog-wood berries ; the pulp to which 
this mixture is to be added should first be strongly mor- 
danted with alum. Olive green may also be produced with 
a liquor prepared by boiling one part of the quercitron bark 
by measure, with two parts of water to which there is added 
a ssolution of green vitriol. Olive green, light, can be pro- 
duced upon paper by first treating the pulp so as to obtain 
a Berlin or Prussian blue, and then adding a liquor pro- 
duced by boiling five pounds of fustic and one and one- 
quarter pounds of archil in ten gallons of water. 

Picric green can be produced by first treating the pulp 
with a moderately strong solution of Berlin or Prussian blue, 
and afterwards adding a solution of picric acid in water. 

Greens of various shades can be obtained by varying the 



478 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

proportions of a mixture of Prussian blue and chromate of 
lead. 

Aniline green colors are now coming into general use for 
coloring certain grades of paper. Brilliant green, new Vic- 
toria green, and E-ussia green can be used for coloring paper. 
All of these colors should be applied to pulps previously 
mordanted with alum. 

The various other aniline greens, such as Hoffman's night 
green, Lowe & Cliffs emeraldine, as well as Fritsche's eme- 
raldine, cannot be utilized for coloring paper. 

Brown Shades on Paper. — Dark brown can be produced 
with a decoction prepared by boiling one-half part of quer- 
citron, one part of logwood, one part of sandal wood, two 
parts of Brazil w^ood, and eight parts by weight of Hungarian 
fustic in a sufficient quantity of water to cover the ingredients 
to the depth of about two inches. The boiling should be 
continued for about one hour, after which the liquor is 
strained through linen, and then allowed to cool. By 
boiling a second time the ingredients above named the 
resulting product can be used for a similar color. Before 
applying this decoction to the pulp it should be previously 
mordanted with a solution of green vitriol. 

Light brown can be produced by using the mixture pre- 
pared for dark brown. But instead of mordanting the pulp 
with green vitriol a weak mordant in the form of a bichro- 
mate of potash solution should be used. 

Catechu brown can be produced with a decoction com- 
posed of two and one-fourth pounds of catechu and four 
ounces of green vitriol in twenty gallons of water. The pulp 



COLORING. 479 

to which this decoction is applied should first be slightly 
mordanted with alum. 

Olive brown can be produced by boiling one-half part of 
logwood, two parts quercitron and four parts of Hungarian 
fustic, all by weight, in sufficient water to cover the ingre- 
dients about two inches deep. After boiling for one hour 
the liquid is strained through linen, and when cold is 
applied to the pulp which should first be strongly mordanted 
with a solution of potash. After the coloring liquor is 
applied the pulp should be treated with a solution of green 
vitriol. 

Coffee-brown is produced by mordanting the pulp with a 
solution of one pound and two ounces of acetate of copper 
in seven gallons of water, and then immediately treating it 
with a solution of yellow prussiate of potash in slightly acid- 
ulated water. 

Light leather brown can be produced by employing three 
pints of logwood liquor, five pints of Brazil wood dye liquor 
and six gallons of fustic dye liquor. After this mixture is 
applied to the pulp it should be treated with a solution of 
one pound of alum in thirteen gallons of water. 

Mifonce brown is produced by employing one gallon of 
logwood dye liquor, one gallon of fustic dye liquor, and one 
and one-half gallons of Brazil wood dye liquor. After this 
mixture is applied to the pulp it should be treated with a 
mixture of one pound of sulphate of copper in ten gallons 
of water to which should be added a solution of one-fourth 
pound of sulphate of iron in ten gallons of water. The two 



480 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

solutions should be thoroughly sth'red before the resulting 
mixture is added to the pulp. 

Aniline brown. Bismarck brown comes into commerce 
in the form of a tarry, black brown mass which is soluble in 
spirit of wine and insoluble in water; but the spirituous 
solution after being mixed with water can be directly used 
for producing a dye liquor for imparting a brown color to 
paper. Coloring matters of a character similar to that of 
Bismarck brown, and also known as aniline brown, not 
infrequently consist of only by-products obtained by over- 
heating the composition in the preparation of fuchsine. 

Havana brown is soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and also 
in water, and is purified by precipitation from its solution 
from common salt. 

Phenol brown is one of the direct products of the creasote 
in coal tar. In commerce it is found as a delicate brown 
powder which is readily soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and 
alkalies, especially with an addition of some tartaric acid ; 
but in water this coloring matter is only partially soluble. 
If such an oxidizing agent as potassium chromate be added 
to the solution of coloring matter it is possible to obtain a 
variety of shades ranging from dark wood brown to light 
leather brown. Phenol brown gives an agreeable brown 
color, and is readily absorbed by the fibre. 

Violet Shades on Paper. — Violet may be produced by 
first coloring the pulp a pale blue with Berlin or Prussian 
blue, or with ultramarine, and then treating it with a solu- 
tion of carmine. Violet can also be produced by digesting 
two parts of dry shavings of logwood in sixteen parts of spirit 



COLORING. 481 

of wine, and after adding a little alcohol, the mixture should 
be applied to the pulp, which should first be slightly mor- 
danted with alum. 

Violet can also be prepared with an extract of Campeachy 
wood and alum. 

Aniline Violets.— DsiYiXm. is a beautiful coloring matter of 
rare purity of color, and in hot water it is readily soluble. 
Dahlia (dahlia imperial) is probably a by-product obtained 
in the manufacture of aniline red, and it assumes a brownish- 
red color when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, 
thus differing from the ordinary aniline violet, as the latter 
color is colored blue when treated with concentrated sul- 
phuric acid. 

Hoffman's violet comes into commerce in two varieties, 
one of which is a reddish violet and the other a blue violet ; 
they both occur in bronze-colored grins or crystals, and 
are readily soluble in alcohol, wood spirit, etc., but only 
moderately soluble in water. This dye-stuff is pre-eminent 
for its beauty and purity. 

Perkins's violet commonly occurs in commerce as a green 
crystalline powder, having a metallic lustre, that is, when in 
a pure state ; but it sometimes comes as a dark violet paste, 
and is readily soluble in hot water, and also, in the presence 
of an acid, in alcohol, wood spirit, glycerine, acetic acid, etc., 
but is only moderately soluble in cold water. This coloring 
matter is precipitated by alkalies and alkaline salts from 
its solution, but from spirituous solutions it is precipitated 
by water. 

31 



482 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Parisian violet is not soluble in water, but by adding an 
acid it readily dissolves. 

E,osaniline violet dissolves readily in alcohol and acetic 
acid, but it is with difficulty soluble in water. This coloring 
matter comes into commerce in the form of a brownish-blue 
powder having a weak lustre. 

In addition to the aniline colors and the phenol colors 
there is another series belonging to this class which are the 
so-called naphthaline colors, and they are produced from 
naphthaline, which is a constituent of coal tar, and is a 
white crystalline body belonging to the hydrocarbons. 
Naphthaline violet is one of this class of colors, but it has 
not as yet been so generally introduced as the regular 
aniline colors. 

Gray Shades on Pa^per. — Dark gray can be produced by 
employing a decoction of two ounces of concentrated extract 
of logwood, four ounces of Indian fustic, three pounds of tan 
liquor, three pounds of alum, and one pound of green vitriol. 

Iron gray can be produced by employing a decoction of 
one ounce of logwood extract, two and one-half pounds of 
tan liquor, and nine pounds of solution of green vitriol. 

Dark gray can also be obtained by neutralizing the grease 
contained in lampblack by treating it with a warm dilute 
solution of soda or potash. The lampblack is then washed 
until all traces of the alkali have been removed, and the 
material is then run into the beating engine. The gray 
color can be deepened or lightened by increasing or decreas- 
ing the proportion of the lampblack employed. Gray can 
also be obtained by employing a mixture of one part of 



COLORING. 483 

gallotannic acid, two parts of green vitriol, and ten parts of 
water. The material should be filtered through a linen rag, 
and the liquor freed from the insoluble particles run into 
the beating engine. 

Aniline gray^ sometimes called murine, is one of the 
important aniline colors, and in many respects it approaches 
aniline violet; it is soluble in boiling water, and yields a 
pretty gray. By the action of aldehyde upon aniline violet 
in the presence of sulphuric acid, there is produced another 
gray ; but this, on account of its high price, has not as yet 
been generally adopted for coloring paper. 

Blach. — The pulp is seldom colored black ; the color, 
however, can be produced either by the employment of 
lampblack, cleansed as has been described, or the color can 
be obtained by the employment of a concentrated decoction 
of logwood and acetate of iron, the latter usually being of 
2° Baume, the pulp being previously mordanted with alum. 
* Aniline hlach does not occur in commerce as an actual 
coloring matter, but by the action of oxidizing agents upon 
the paper pulp, treated with an aniline salt (best aniline 
acetate), the black color can be produced directly upon the 
material to be treated. The color which results from this 
treatment is, in fact, a very dark aniline green, and on 
account of the insolubility of the products of oxidation 
formed upon the fibre itself, the color so produced is very 
fast, and the action of the most energetic acids and bases 
afi"ect it less than any other black color. Various receipts 
have been given for preparing this color, but the nature of 
the fibre used for paper does not allow the employment of 



484 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

every oxidizing agent; ammonium ferrocyanide is probably 
the best oxident that can be used. 

Deep^ indeUhle UacJc, such as is used in coloring paper to 
be employed in lieu of leather for the manufacture of cheap 
pocketbooks, etc., can be prepared as follows : — 

Blue aniline . 94 parts. 

Yellow aniline ....... .26 

Naphthaline . . 48 

Red aniline . . . . ... . .32 

Alcohol . 74.00 

The whole is dissolved in a suitable vessel by agitation, 
and the liquid afterwards filtered. 

Bi'onze Shades on Paper. — To prepare an aniline bronze 
according to Fiorillo's formula, proceed as follows : Dissolve 
ten parts of aniline red, five parts of aniline purple, in one 
hundred parts of alcohol. Aniline red, as we have previously 
stated, is also sometimes called diamond fuchsine or roseine, 
and aniline purple is also known in commerce as Hofi'man's 
violet and also as methyl violet. The strength of the alcohol 
employed measures about 95°, and, in order to promote the 
dissolution of the ingredients, the vessel containing the 
mixture is placed in either hot water or a sand bath. When 
the anilines above named have been dissolved by the alcohol, 
there should then be added five parts of benzoic acid, and 
the mixture is then allowed to boil gently, after which there 
is added 32 parts of gum benzoine, which will impart a 
cantharide green color to the mixture, but by continuing the 
boiling for about eight or ten minutes, the color will become 
changed into a bright golden-bronze hue. 

A brilliant bronze may be prepared as follows : Take of 
aniline blue, violet, or purple, one ounce ; aniline red, three 



COLORING. 485 

ounces ; acetic acid, one pint. The above mixture is slightly 
heated in order to promote the solution of the aniline, and 
the mixture is then allowed to cool. One pound of gelatine 
is next dissolved in a separate vessel in two quarts of acetic 
acid, and the mixture thus prepared is added to the one first 
described, and the whole is thoroughly incorporated by 
vigorous stirring. 

Surface Coloring. — The bronze colors as well as some of 
the other colors and shades which we have mentioned are 
oftentimes applied only to the surface of the paper, and in 
such cases the apparatus shown in Figures 132 and 133 can 
be used for the purpose. 

Vegetable Substances not always Desirable for Coloring 
Paper. — Vegetable substances should be cautiously used in 
paper-making for coloring the pulp, and, as a rule, they 
should not be employed except under circumstances where 
the coloring matters derived from mineral substances and 
Trom the anilines would not give pure shades. Vegetable 
colors are often so unstable that they are readily decomposed 
under the action of air and light, and vegetable substances 
should not be employed under any circumstances when the 
paper colored therewith is to be used for covering books, 
pamphlets, etc. 

Stains used for Coloring Paper after it is Manufactured in 
order to i^repare it for use in the Fabrication of Artificial 
Flowers., etc. 

Sap-colors are only used and principally those containing 
much coloring matter. The following colors are calculated 
for one ream of paper of medium size and weight : — 



486 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

The gum-Arabic given in the receipts is dissolved in the 
sap-Uquor. 

Blue (DarJc). — I. Mix 1 gallon of tincture of Berlin blue 
and 2 ounces each of wax-soap and gum tragacanth. 

II. Mix f gallons of tincture of Berlin blue with 2 ounces 
of wax-soap and 4j ounces of gum tragacanth. 

Grimso7i. — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood com- 
pounded with borax, 2 ounces of wax-soap, and 8f ounces 
of sum- Arabic. 

Green (Dark). — I. Take | gallon of liquor of sap-green 
(boiled down juice of the berries of Rliamnus caiharticits), 4^ 
ounces of indigo rubbed fine, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4| 
ounces of gum-Arabic. 

II. One-half gallon of liquor of sap-green, 4 J ounces of 
distilled verdigris, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4| ounces of 
gum-Arabic. 

Yellow (Golden).— Mix 6| pounds of gamboge with 2 
ounces of wax-soap. 

Yelloiv (Lemon). — I. Compound 1 gallon of juice of 
Persian berries with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of 
gum-Arabic. 

II. Add to 1 gallon of liquor of quercitron compounded 
with solution of tin 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8'| ounces 
of gum-Arabic. 

Yelloiv (Pale). — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of fustic, 2 ounces 
of wax-soap, and 8J ounces of gum-Arabic. 

Yelloiv (Greeri). — I. Compound 1 gallon of liquor sap- 
green with 2 ounces each of distilled verdigris and wax-soap 
and 8^ ounces of gum-Arabic. 



COLORING. 487 

II. Take 1 gallon of liquor of sap-green, 2 ounces each of 
dissolved indigo and wax-soap, and 8^ ounces of gum- 
Arabic. 

Red (DarJc). — Compound 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil 
wood with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum- 
Arabic. 

Rose Color. — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of cochineal with 2 
ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum- Arabic. 

Scarlet. — I. Mix 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood com- 
pounded with alum, and a solution of copper with 2 ounces 
of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum- Arabic. 

II. Mix 1 gallon of liquor of cochineal compounded with 
citrate of tin with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of 
gum-Arabic. 

Stains for Glazed Papers. 

On account of the cheapness of these papers a solution of 
glue is used as an agglutinant. The following proportions 
are generally used for one ream of paper of medium size and 
weight: One pound of glue and l;j gallons of water. 

Blach. — I. Dissolve one pound of glue in \^ gallons of 
water ; triturate with this 1 pound of lampblack previously 
rubbed up in rye whiskey, 2| pounds of Frankfort black, 2 
ounces of Paris blue, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and add 1| 
pounds of liquor of logwood. 

II. Take | gallon of liquor of logwood compounded with 
sulphate of iron, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4| ounces of 
gum-Arabic. 

Blue {Azu7'e). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in l^ gallons of 



488 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

water, and compound the solution with 1| pounds of Berlin 
blue, 2f pounds of pulverized chalk, 2^ ounces of light 
mineral blue, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. 

Blue (Dark). — I. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in IJ gallons 
of water, and mix with it 4;^ pounds of pulverized chalk, 4|; 
ounces of Paris blue, and 2 ounces of wax- soap. 

II. Mix I gallon of tincture of Berlin blue and 1 ounce 
of wax-soap with 2^ ounces of dissolved gum tragacanth. 

Blue {Pale). — I. Mix | gallon of tincture of Berlin blue 
and 1 ounce of wax-soap with 3| ounces of dissolved gum 
tragacanth. 

II. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and 
mix with it 4 pounds of pulverized chalk and 2 ounces each 
of Parisian blue and wax-soap. 

Broion (Dark). — I. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons 
of water, and mix with it 1 pound of colcothar, a like quan- 
tity of English pink, IJ pounds of pulverized chalk, and 2 
ounces of wax-soap. 

II. Dissolve 1 ounce of wax-soap and 4| ounces of gum- 
Arabic in | gallon of good liquor of Brazil wood and a like 
quantity of tincture of gall-nuts. 

Green (Copper). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in \^ gallons 
of water, and triturate with it 4 pounds of English green, 1| 
pounds of pulverized chalk, and 4 ounces of wax-soap. 

Green (Pale). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in \^ gallons of 
water, and mix with it 1 pound of Bremen Blue, 8| ounces 
of whiting, 1 ounce of light chrome-yellow, and 2 ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Lemon Color. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1\ gallons of 



COLORING. 489 

water, and mix with it 13 ounces of light chrome-yellow, 2 
pounds of pulverized chalk, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. 

Orange-yelloio. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons 
of water, and mix with it 2 pounds of light chrome-yellow, 
1 pound of Turkish minium, 2 pounds of white lead, and 2 
ounces of wax-soap. 

Red {Cherry'). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in \\ gallons of 
water, and mix with it 8J pounds of Turkish minium pre- 
viously rubhed up with J gallon of liquor of Brazil wood, 
and 2 ounces of wax-soap. 

Red {Darh). — Mix f gallons of liquor of Brazil wood 
with 1 ounce of wax-soap and 4| ounces of gum- Arabic. 

Red ( Per ?e).— Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of 
water, and mix with it 8f pounds of Turkish minium pre- 
viously rubbed up with 2 ounces of wax-soap. 

Rose Color. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of 
liquor of Brazil wood and mix with it 50 pounds of rose 
madder previously rubbed up with 2 ounces of wax-soap. 

Violet. — Mix 4| ounces of gum- Arabic and 1 ounce of 
wax-soap with | gallon of good liquor of logwood. After 
the gum has dissolved in the liquor compound it with suffi- 
cient potash to form a mordant. 

Stains for Morocco Papers. 

The following colors are calculated for one ream of paper 
of medium size and weight. 

Black. — Dissolve 8f ounces of good parchment shavings 
in 1 J gallons of water and stir in 1 pound of lampblack, 30 
pounds of Frankfort black, and If ounces of fine Paris blue. 



490 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Blue {Dark). — Dissolve 8f ounces of good parchment 
shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with the solution 
8^ pounas of white lead and 4| ounces of fine Paris blue. 

Blue {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with it 8,| pounds of white 
lead and "Ij ounces of fine Paris blue. 

Green {Dark). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 2| gallons of water, and mix with 10 pounds of 
Schweinfurth green. 

Green {Pale). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shavings 
in 2| gallons of water, and mix with 8^ pounds of Schwein- 
furth green and 1 pound of fine Paris blue. 

Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 8| ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of 
light chrome yellow, 8f ounces of orange chrome-yellow, 
and 1 pound of white lead. 

Reel {Dark). — Dissolve 8| ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and compound this with 7f pounds 
of fine cinnabar and 1 pound of Turkish minium. 

Red {Pale). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix it with 8f pounds of Turkish 
minium. 

Violet {Dark). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 3f pounds of white 
lead, 1 pound of pale mineral blue, and 8f ounces of scarlet 
lake. 

Violet {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with 4j pounds of 



COLORING. 491 

white lead, 13 ounces of light mineral blue, and 8f ounces 
of scarlet lake. 

Yelloiv (Pale). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 2 pounds of light 
chrome-yellow and 8f ounces of white lead. 

Stains for Satin Papers. 

The following colors are calculated for one ream of paper 
of medium size and weight. 

Blue {Azure). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shavings 
in 2J gallons of water, and mix with 3 pounds of Bremen 
blue, If pounds of English mineral blue, and 4| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Blue (LigJit). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1 pound of light mine- 
ral blue and 3| ounces of wax-soap. 

^ Brown {Light). — Dissolve 8;| ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 13 ounces of light 
chrome-yellow, Q>\ ounces of colcothar, 2 ounces of Frank- 
fort black, 3 pounds of pulverized chalk, and 3| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Brown {Reddish). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment 
shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with one pound 
of yellow ochre, 4| ounces of light chrome-yellow, 1 pound 
of white lead, 1 ounce of red ochre, and 3| ounces of wax- 
soap. 

Gray {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 4^ pounds of pulverized 



492 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

chalk, 8f ounces of Frankfort black, 1 ounce of Paris blue, 
and 3| ounces of wax-soap. 

Gray (Bluish). — Dissolve 8| ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 4 J pounds of pulver- 
ized chalk, 1 pound of light mineral blue, 4^ ounces of 
English green, If ounces of Frankfort black, and 3| ounces 
of wax-soap. 

Green (BrownisJi). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment 
shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1 pound of 
Schweinfurth green, 8f ounces of mineral green, 4^ ounces 
each of burnt umber and English pink, 1 pound of whiting, 
and 3J ounces of wax-soap. 

Green (Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 2f pounds of English 
green a like quantity of pulverized chalk and 3| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Lemon Color. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of light 
chrome-yellow, 1 pound of white lead, and 3| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Orange-yeUoiD. — -Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of 
light chrome-yellow, 8f ounces of orange chrome-yellow, 1 
pound of white lead, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. 

Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- 
ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 4^ pounds of 
light chrome-yellow, 8f ounces of Turkish minium, 1 pound 
of white lead, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. 

Eose Color. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 



COLORING. 493 

in 1| gallons of water, and mix with | gallon of rose color 
prepared from liquor of Brazil wood and chalk, and 6| 
pounds of wax-soap. 

Violet {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of light 
mineral blue, a like quantity of scarlet lake, 1 pound of 
white lead, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. 

White. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1| 
gallons of water, and mix with 8f pounds of line Kremnitz 
white, 4;|; ounces of fine Bremen blue, and 3| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Silver White. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 8f pounds of Krem- 
nitz white, 8f ounces of Frankfort black, and 3| ounces of 
wax-soap. 

Pale Yellow. — Dissolve 8;| ounces of parchment shavings 
in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 4^ pounds of light 
chrome-yellow, 1 pound of pulverized chalk, and 3| ounces 
of wax-soap. 



494 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



■}■" 



\ „ 



J 



/ I 











MAKING AND FINISHING. v 495 



CHAPTER XV. 

MAKING AND FINISHING. 

The materials to be made into paper having been sub- 
jected to all the preliminary operations which we have 
described, the pulp is ready for transformation into sheets by 
means of the paper-machine. Before proceeding further, we 
shall recapitulate in a few words the operations of which we 
have treated. The materials arrive at the mill, are sorted 
and cut by hand or by machinery, dusted, boiled in water 
and in alkalies, dripped, washed, and reduced to half-stuff 
^in the rag-engine. The half-stuff is drained, pressed or air 
dried, and submitted to the action of an hypochlorite or ol 
gaseous chlorine, or to the action of both these chemicals. 
After the bleaching with chlorine or other chemicals, the 
pulp is washed, and, if necessary, the last traces of chlorine 
are eliminated by means of antichlorine ; then the refining 
is proceeded with in the beating engine, and the minute 
fibres or pulp thus obtained is treated with agglutinative, 
loading, and coloring materials, intended to give weight, body, 
and finish to the paper. The pulp having been thus pre- 
pared is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper-machine. , 

In Fig. 134 we show an interior view of a machine room 
in a modern paper-mill, containing a Fourdrinier machine. 

The pulp is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper- 



496 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

machine and is kept in suspension by means of an agitator ; 
it is delivered to the paper-machine in constant quantities, 
and after passing through several purifying contrivances, 
intended to free it from the last traces of sand, it is run in 
a thin and wide sheet upon endless metallic cloth, horizon- 
tally disposed at its anterior part. A continuous forward 
movement is communicated to this metallic cloth, technically 
termed the " wire," which receives during its forward move- 
ment a continuous succession of lateral shakes, in imitation 
of the " shake" which the vatman gives to the sheet of 
paper when moulded by hand ; the " shake" is intended to 
favor the dripping and felting of the pulp upon the " wire." 
A suction contrivance operated underneath a certain part of 
the metallic cloth also assists in the abstraction of moisture 
and renders the sheet more solid. The sheet, having reached 
the extremity of the horizontal parts of the metallic cloth, 
passes upon a cylinder which delivers it to two laminating 
cylinders covered with felt ; thence the sheet passes through 
the pressing rolls and to the drying cylinders heated by 
steam ; lastly it may be made to pass between one or more 
pairs of circular scissors which trim and slit the paper into 
strips of the desired width ; these strips are then rolled upon 
a cylinder fixed on a mandrel. 

It will not be possible in a volume of the size of the pres- 
ent one to enter upon a detailed description of all the parts 
and the manner of operating our modern paper-machines. 
We shall consequently devote space only to such portions of 
the machines employed for making and finishing the paper 
as possess features susceptible of improvement, and in this 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 497 

connection illustrate some of the recent inventions of practical 
paper manufacturers. The practical parts of the work of 
forming and finishing the paper Avill be treated only so far 
as may be necessary for comprehension, as, in the opinion of 
the writer, a description of the mechanical skill which can 
be acquired only through actual experience offers no advant- 
age to either the theorist or to the practical paper-maker ; 
the " machine man" can become familiar with the best man- 
ner of adjusting and operating the paper-making machine 
under his charge only by long and practical experience. 

It was the writer's first intention to have made the present 
chapter as well as the various other chapters in this work 
entirely " practical," and to this end he secured personally 
in the United States, as well as in the other great paper- 
making countries in the world — Great Britain, Germany, 
France, and Belgium — a large number of notes entirely 
practical in their character. But upon a full consideration 
of the subject, and by the advice of some of the leading 
paper makers, the author decided that the present volume 
could be made more valuable by surrendering the space to a 
description of some of the leading mechanical inventions of 
the present day which have done so much to increase the 
product and lessen the cost of all kinds of paper. In adopt- 
ing the latter plan the writer is well aware that he renders 
himself liable to the old complaint of the " practical" man 
who neglects and condemns books because they do not 
enter into the minutest details contributing to successful 
operations; but this criticism does not by any means lessen 
the value of books. After all, we can only reiterate that 

32 



498 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

" practical information" can be obtained only by actual 
practice. The province of a book on any of the arts is that 
of a guide-post which points out the correct road, but leaves 
the traveller to take it and to encounter and remove for him- 
self all the small obstacles found on the way. Hence, while 
books cannot take the place of actual experience, their value, 
as embodying the experiences of others must not be ignored, and 
nothing can be more useful or valuable to the really practical 
man thau a volume describing and illustrating in detail the 
state of the art in any manufacture and thereby pointing out 
the roads that are being pursued by successful manu- 
facturers and inventors of the present time. Such a book, if 
intelligently used, should prove a never-failing means of 
suggestion and inspiration to all progressive practical men. 
Whereas, a description of methods and mechanical appliances 
which have for a long series of years been employed in 
various portions of the world, and have already become 
common property can, in reality, prove of little value to the 
advanced paper-makers of the day. 

Fig. 135 shows an apparatus for purifying the pulp. The 
machine oscillates, and receives a shaking movement from 
blades arranged for that purpose. The pulp is received from 
the supply-box through the tube H, and is distributed in 
compartments provided with stops for the sand and other 
heavy bodies ; then, passing through grooves made in a cop- 
per plate, it falls in the reservoir B. It then passes through 
the pressure of its upper level, in the compartment C, going 
through other grooves, passes over rubber sheets, 7), and falls 
in the channel F to be conveyed to the machine. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



499 



111 order to insure satisfactory weight and uniformity in 
the color of the paper, some manufacturers employ two stuff- 



Fig. 135. 




tIM" m^.^-"«-^y".-»>»W ! »_ I 



>^i^^^^^ci^N^M^i^^^^§^ 




chests with each machine, into one of these chests the pulp 
is empitied from the beater while the " machine" is being 
supplied from the other. In some cases it may be found 
advantageous to work the " wire" taut on the machine, 
and in other cases it may be found more economical to work 
the " wire" quite slack ; but these matters, as we have 
previously hinted, are subjects for practical consideration. 



Stvff Regulator for Paper-Maldiig MacJmies. 

The invention shown in Figs. 136 to 140, which is that 
of Mr. Cornelius Young, of Sandy Hill, New York, relates 
to improvements in stuff-regulators for paper-machines ; and 
it consists in providing an adjustable gate, the movements 
of which are automatically controlled by the movements of 
a balanced stuff-chute, and in providing the stuff-box with a 
vertically-sliding gate. 



500 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



The object is to regulate the flow of pulp or " stuff" from 
the stuff-box to the paper-machine proper. 

Figure 136 is a plan view of a stuff-box provided with 
Young's improved device. Fig. 137 is a vertical section of 
it taken at broken line x y in Fig. 136. Fig. 138 is a 



Y'm. 136. 




S 



Fi2. 137. 




front elevation of it, with part of front wall broken away 
to show gate / closed. Fig. 139 is same showing gate 1 
open. Fig. 140 is a perspective of gate /and pivoted arms. 
The box is divided by partitions J, B, and C into four 
compartments. One of the compartments is provided with 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



501 



one or more apertures, e e', in the bottom, through which 
the stuff is forced by a pump into the box, until the com- 
partment is filled to the top of partition (7, when it flows 




Fis. 139. 




Fig. 140. 




over between G and D into the next compartment, which 
retains the stuif until filled to the top of partition i?, which 
extends across the box from block 7^ to block T\ the blocks 
serving to narrow the compartment on the side next the 
partition B. When this compartment is filled, the stuff 
flows over partition 5, one portion entering the chute H^ 
from which it is conveyed to the paper-machine proper, and 
the other portion into the compartment provided with out- 



502 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

let g^ through which it flows back to the reservoir from 
which it was originally pumped into the box. The thickness 
and weight of paper produced depend upon the thickness 
and rapidity of flow of stufl" to the machine. As the thick- 
ness or quality of stuff is not subject to absolute control, 
uniformity in the weight of paper produced must be secured 
by subjecting the rapidity of flow to the quality of the stuff. 
Such control has been heretofore attempted in various ways 
— by means of valves or adjustable gates controlled by an 
attendant or by floats and balances. 

The present invention makes use of an adjustable gate, /, 
attached to one side of the box by means of the parallel 
arms, a a\ which are pivoted one end to the gate and the 
other end to the block T, so that when the gate is lifted it 
travels horizontally away from the side of the box to which 
the arms are pivoted, and when it is allowed to fall it travels 
toward the side of the box. There is also used another adjust- 
able gate, 6r, supported by rod c, on which it is adapted to 
slide to and fro between the blocks TT\ the lower end of 
the gate resting upon the upper edge of the partition B, or 
a metallic strip, m, projecting therefrom. The gate is also 
provided with a threaded arm passing through stop n', fixed 
upon rod c, having adjusting-nuts, oi, by means of which the 
gate may be secured in different positions. By sliding gate 
G toward gate / the opening C is diminished in size, and 
less stuff will flow to the machine, the opening b' will be 
increased in size, and more stuff will escape by outlet g. 
By sliding gate G in the opposite direction toward opening 
h' more stuff is allowed to flow to the machine and less back 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 503 

to the stuiF-reservoir through outlet g. The gate G is there- 
fore first set at the proper pomt to make paper of the desh-ed 
weight with a constant flow of the stufl" to be used, yjrovided 
the flow is even in quantity ; but experience shows the 
impossibility of securing such a flow. The pump forces a 
constant quantity into the box ; but the thickness — i. e., the 
relative quantity of pulp and water — varies continually. 
When the stufl" flows thick, more of it must be held back 
from the machine, and diverted to the outlet g^ and when it 
flows thin a greater supply must be sent to^ the machine. 
This is accomplished by means of the gate /, which is con- 
nected by link P with one end of the sweep 0, the other 
end of the sweep being connected by link Q and bail JR, with 
the chute H at one end, the other end of the chute being 
hinged upon partition B directly beneath the opening G\ so 
that the stuff which goes to the machine passes through the 
chute. The weight of the stuff in the chute will depress its 
projecting end, which raises the gate /, and, as before ex- 
plained, narrows the opening C . By means of the weight 
W^ adapted to slide upon the sweep and the spring S, the 
gravity of the stuff in the hinged chute may be balanced to 
secure the desired width of opening C. After the respective 
parts have been once adjusted to produce paper of a given 
weight from a constant flow of stuff of known average qual- 
ity they will thereafter be automatically adjusted to the 
varying quality of stuff as the latter passes through and from 
the stuff-box. If the stuff suddenly thickens, its progress 
upon the chute is slower, and it dams up, as it were, thereon. 
The additional weight overcomes the force of the spring S-> 



504 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and the gate /is elevated and forced toward opening C to 
close the latter, which forces a larger proportion of the stuff 
through opening &', and admits a smaller quantity to the chute 
and machine. If the stuff is thinner than the average, it 
flows more readily from the chute, leaving a less lighter 
quantity thereon, which lowers the gate and widens the 
opening C and permits a larger flow of stuff to the chute 
and machine. 

Fig. 138 shows the gate closed to narrow opening C", and 
Fig. 139 shows the gate opened to widen opening O . 

In Fig. 137 the link ^ is shown in two slotted lapping 
parts, which permits of its longitudinal adjustment by means 
of the thumb-screw q. The spring 8 is also attached to 
its supporting-arm, X, by a threaded rod, which permits of 
the adjustment of the spring by the thumb-screw i. 

There is shown sweep 0, pivoted at the arm y ; but it 
may be pivoted at arm i instead, through another aperture 
in the sweep, to change the leverage of chute and gate. 

In Figs. 138 and 139 the supporting-arm d is shown ver- 
tically adjustable upon the upright K\ by means of set- 
screw u. 

To prevent a sudden rush of thick pulp upon the chute, 
which might cause it to overflow, there are provided the 
partitions, D and C, the latter extending from the bottom 
of the box upward about half the heiglit of the box, and the 
former being situated a little one side of the latter and 
extending both above and below the top of G. It can be 
slid vertically in grooves, 7", in the sides of the box. 

When the stuff is of the usual thickness, it flows through 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 505 

the aperture between D and (7, and does not attain a level 
much above the top of outlet-partition B or m; but if a 
considerable quantity of thick stuff is suddenly forced into 
the compartment U it will not run so freely between D and G^ 
and rises in the compartment D' until the stuff runs thinner, 
or until its height affords safiicient pressure to force it through 
the opening. 

By raising or lowering the sliding partition Z), the narrow- 
opening between it and G is lengthened or shortened, which 
gives it more resistance when lengthened and less when 
shortened. The inventor claims he is thus able to secure a 
perfect adjustment of the flow of stuff to the machine auto- 
matically and produce an even quality of paper. 

Automatic Wire- Guide for Paper-Making Machines. 

The objects of the invention shown in Figs. 141 to 145, 
which is that of Mr. Thomas P. Barry, of Stillwater, N. Y., 
are to provide means by which the guide-roll cylinder which 
supports the wire apron is made to operate mechanism placed 
intermediate between the guide-roll cylinder and guides at 
the side edges of the wire apron, so that the guides will be 
automatically operated to truly and properly guide the wire 
apron in its forward movement, and also to provide means by 
which an attendant will be enabled to cause the wire apron 
to be guided in its forward movement should certain parts 
of the automatic mechanism become disarranged. 

Fig. 141 represents a plan view of a section of a paper- 
making machine and Mr. Barry's improved wire-guiding 
device attached. Fig. 142 is a side elevation of the guide- 



506 



THE MANUFACTURE OF JAPER. 



roll cylinder carrying the wire to be guided. Fig. 143 is a 
front side elevation of the device. Fig. 144 is a rear side 
elevation of it; and Fig. 145 is a cross-sectional view of it, 
taken at line No. 1 in Fig. 141. 



Fis;. 141. 




Fi£. 142. 




A A represent the frame of a paper-making machine, and 
5 is a guide-roller supporting the wire web or apron C, 
which the present device is intended to guide as it moves 
forward. 

Secured to one of the side portions, A, of the frame of tlie 
machine is the bed or way D, made preferably with a 
V-shaped form, as shown in Fig. 145. Made with the way, 
and extending outward and in a lateral direction from the 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 

Fio;. 143. 



507 




Fig. 144. 




same, are brackets, a «, which brackets support shaft &, which 
is free to revolve in bearings made in the rear ends of the 
brackets. The shaft is held from being moved longitudinally 
by the shoulders of the journals of the shaft bearing against 
the sides of the bearings in which they work. 



508 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Made with shaft & is a screw-thread section, c. Mounted 
on the shaft is a duplex ratchet-wheel, E^ which is secured 




from turning on the shaft by a feather or spline, r?, fixed in 
the shaft and working in a seat made in the hub of the 
ratchet-wheel. 

jP is a bearing of shaft e of guide-roll cylinder or roller B^ 
which bearing is made solid with or attached to bracket H, 
which bracket is pivoted to shaft h by arms g g\ and is sup- 
ported by way or bed Z), on which the lower foot ends of 
the bracket rests, as shown in Figs. 141, 143, and 145. 
Being thus pivoted to shaft J, and supported by way or 
bed Z), the bracket H is adapted to be turned up from a 
horizontal position, as shown in the several figures, to the 
position shown by dotted lines in Fig. 145. 

The pivoting eye or bearing in arm g of the bracket H is 
provided with a screw-thread, which corresponds with the 
screw-thread of section c of shaft h, and the screw-threaded 
section works in the screw-threaded eye of arm g\ as shown 
in Figs. 141 and 143. 

Mounted on the upper side of bracket ZT, and against or 
adjacent to bearing F of guide-roll cylinder B^ is housing /, 
in which freely works bar /, which bar is adapted to be 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 509 

moved in either direction transversely to the direction of 
shaft h. A notch, v^ Fig. 141, is made in the end of the 
reciprocating bar e7next to the end of guide-roll cylinder J5, 
and in its side facing. Secured to the shaft of the guide- 
roll cylinder, so as to revolve with it, is cam-wheel K^ 
formed by an annular flange arranged in one direction 
slightly oblique in the axis of guide-roll cylinder B^ as shown 
in Fig. 142. The cam-wheel works in notch v of bar J", and 
moves the bar alternately in opposite directions as guide-roll 
cylinder B is revolved. 

Pivoted to the end of reciprocating bar J, opposite to its 
notched end, are dogs n n\ Figs. 141 and 143, which dogs 
are held and drawn toward each other by spring s, Fig. 143, 
and engage respectively with the teeth m m! of wheel E^ as 
shown in Figs. 141 and 143, according as the wheel E is 
in situation for engagement with the dogs, as will be herein- 
after described. 

Supported in arms o o, projecting from the way or bed D, 
is a vertical shaft, L. To the lower end of the shaft is 
secured crank p. provided with vertical arms q, Figs. 142, 
143, and 144. Pivoted to the upper end of the vertical arm 
q is B. forked pitman, r, which pitman is yoked to a loose 
collar or sleeve, t, on the hub of wheel E. 

Secured to the vertical shaft L at its upper end is arm M, 
carrying a clamping device, consisting of upright stud N, 
provided with an oblong slot and set-screw. (Shown in 
Figs. 143 and 144.) Secured in the clamping device at one 
of its ends is the shifting-bar P, the opposite end of which 



510 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

works freely in sleeve Q^ supported by standard Q', attached 
to the frame of the machine, as shown in Figs. 141 and 142. 
Secured to the shifting-bar P by clamping devices R E 
are guides T T\ which guides are each composed of two 
rollers, uu. Figs. 141, 142, 143, and 144, arranged and con- 
nected with plate ii by being pivoted to ears made with the 
plate, as shown in Fig. 144. The guides thus composed are 
each pivoted to their respective clamping devices R R', as 
indicated by dotted lines it? in Fig. 144, and are each capable 
of a swiveling movement. 

Secured to one end of shaft 5 is a hand-wheel, X, which 
may be operated in either direction for shifting the bearings 
of guide-roll by hand when circumstances require, as will be 
hereinafter described. 

The manner in which the several parts of Mr. Barry's 
device operate is as follows : The guides T T' are set near 
to the side edges of the wire apron (7, with their rollers u u 
at a distance from the same as the machine-tender may 
select. The guide-roll cylinder B revolves in direction of 
arrow No. 1 in Figs. 141 and 143, and carries the wire 
apron to be guided in direction of arrow 2 in same figures. 
The cam /f, attached to the shaft or journal of guide-roll 
cylinder B, revolves with the same, and works in the notch 
made in the reciprocating bar J, and causes the bar to be 
moved once in each direction at each revolution of the guide- 
roll cylinder and operate the bar, so as to carry the dogs n 
ii! to a full movement back and return at each side of the 
ratchet-wheel. The ratchet-wheel E being mounted loosely 
on shaft 6, and held by its feather so as to turn with the shaft. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 511 

is adapted to move longitudinally on the same in either 
direction and between dogs n n. When the wire apron is 
moving forward uniformly and truly with its side edges 
in straight lines of direction the dogs will be moved back 
and forth without engaging with the teeth of the ratchet- 
wheel. When the wire apron C begins to shift or run from 
side A of the machine the off side edge, 1, of the apron will 
crowd against the rollers u u of the guide T^ when the shift- 
ing-bar P will draw arm M in direction of arrow 4 and 
cause crank-arm p to move in direction of arrow 5, and 
through pitnian r and sleeve t move ratchet-wheel E toward 
dog ?z, so that the dog will work in engagement with the 
teeth m of the same. As the revolution of guide-roll cylinder 
B is continued cam K will impart to bar J a reciprocating 
movement, by which the dogs n n' will be moved back and 
forth, the dog 71! being out of engagement with the ratchet- 
wheel, while the dog n will be in engagement with the teeth 
^m of the same, and at each return movement draw on the 
teeth and cause the ratchet-wheel to be moved in direction 
of arrow 6, when the screw c on shaft h will be turned and 
cause bearing i^to be shifted in direction of arrow 7. This 
shifting of the bearing will be attended by a gradual shifting 
also of bar s/and its attached dogs n n' in the same direction, 
so that in a short time the dog n will be out of engagement 
with the ratchet-wheel, while dog 1^ will be thrown into 
engagement and will operate to turn the ratchet-wheel in an 
opposite direction, and also operate the screw of shaft h to 
shift bearing F, and also the dogs, in direction opposite to 
arrow 7. 



512 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 

It will be seen that the dogoi operates to turn the ratchet- 
wheel when it is drawn toward the wire apron, and moves 
the ratchet-wheel in direction of arrow 6 ; also, that dog n' 
operates to turn the ratchet-wheel when it is pushed back, 
and moves the ratchet-wheel in an opposite direction to that 
indicated by arrow 6. When the dogs are operated back 
and forth, and at the same time free from engagement with 
the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, the ratchet-wheel will be idle, 
and there will be no relative shifting of parts. When this 
idle condition of parts exists the wire apron is running 
evenly and uniformly straight without its side edges exerting 
any great pressure on their respective guides T T', while 
when the edge at guide T bears against that guide it will 
tend to throw the ratchet-wheel toward dog n at engage- 
ment with the same, when the dog, operating with teeth m, 
will gradually shift the parts and cause the opposite operat- 
ing-dog, n\ to be carried toward teeth m' of the ratchet- 
wheel, while the dog n will be thrown out of engagement 
with teeth m. When the side edge of the wire apron 
presses against guide T' the pressure will operate to slightly 
move arm 31 in opposite direction to arrow 4, and cause the 
crank-arm p to operate pitman r so as to shift the ratchet- 
wheel toward dog n' and in engagement with the same, 
when the screw will be turned in an opposite direction and 
carry bearing F and bar /and dogs n n' in direction opposite 
to arrow 7, when dog n! will be released from engagement 
with teeth w! of the ratchet-wheel. These alternate move- 
ments or reversals of action of parts operate to hold the 
ratchet-wheel at nearly one situation, and consequently it is 



MAKING AND FINISHING.. 513 

made to resist the excessive pressure of the respective side 
edges of the wire apron, and be compelled to run with its 
edges with comparatively uniform lines of movement. 

It should be understood that the wire apron does not run 
around guide-roll B^ but is merely supported by the same, 
and is affected by the slight shifting of its bearing F^ in the 
manner above described. Should the dogs n ii! from any 
cause whatever become disarranged or out of working order, 
an attendant may, by moving the hand- wheel X in alternate 
directions, readily direct the movement of the wire apron. 
This is claimed to be a great advantage, as the machine need 
not be purposely stopped, but may be continued to run until 
the web being made is completed or the usual time for stop- 
page arrives. The support of the bearing F of the guide- 
roll cylinder directly over the way D removes all weight 
from shaft h^ so that the shaft is rendered easy to be turned. 

In Fig. 145 dotted lines illustrate the manner in which 
the bearing F and its adjunctive parts may be turned up. 
This adaptation of the bearing to be turned iip, as shown, 
enables the operator to properly set the bearing in line, 
as required, as he may, by turning the bearing up without 
moving the shaft and then turning it down and moving the 
shaft, gradually adjust the bearing in one direction, while 
by turning the bearing F up and at the same time moving 
the shaft in the same direction, and then turning the bearing 
down while the shaft is held from turning, the bearing will 
be shifted in an opposite direction. It will therefore be 
seen that by this means the bearing F will be set properly. 

33 



514 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

It is not new to construct paper-making machines with a 
rule provided with plates and connected to a pair of levers, 
in connection with a screw on which a double toothed wheel 
is secured, a curved lever carried by another lever, and a 
crank which imparts motion to the last-named lever. Nor 
is it new to provide the mechanism for guiding the wire 
cloths or belts of paper-making machines with a crank-action 
for operating a double pawl to engage by draft or thrust a 
screw-nut ratchet-wheel to slide laterally a sKde or purchase. 
The combination, with the journal of a roller, of an adjust- 
able crank to operate double-acting pawls, which operate in 
either direction a ratchet-wheel, is not new ; nor is the com- 
bination of a bed-plate and a fixed screw-bolt with a screw- 
nut ratchet-wheel to hold and operate a slide by the action 
of double pawls, which are operated by a crank. Mr. Barry 
consequently does not claim such constructions in his patent. 

Suction-Box for Paper-Maldng Machines. 

The following invention, which is that of Mr. Isaac Brat- 
ton, of Wilmington, Del., relates to improvements in connec- 
tion with the suction-box of a paper-making machine, the 
object of the invention being to facilitate the operation of 
the machine and improve the product: — 

Fig. 146 is a longitudinal section of the suction-box of a 
paper-making machine with Mr. Bratton's improvements; 
Fig. 147, a transverse section of it. 

A represents a suction-box of an ordinary Fourdrinier 
paper-machine ; B, the perforated plate forming the top of 
the box ; D, part of the endless web or apron of wire-gauze 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



515 



on which the sheet of pulp is deposited; E E, the usual 
deckle-straps for limiting the width of the sheet, and F F 



Fi<j. 146. 




''ifii>!y/y/ymmmmm0m^izmf»zsm/yii!mimigm''i!^^^ 



J£ 



V 



Fig. 147. 
E 




the adjustable heads or plungers, which coincide with the 
deckle-straps, and are intended to prevent leakage of air 
into the suction-chamber G of the box. 

A partial vacuum being established in the chamber, the 
water is drawn from the sheet of pulp as the endless apron 
D carries the sheet over the perforated cover of the box A^ 
the water being drawn from the box through a pipe, H. 
Ordinarily a pump is used for this purpose, and it becomes 
necessary to prevent the entrance of air to the suction-cham- 
ber (7, as a mixture of air with the water would interfere 
with the operation of the pump ; hence it has been usual to 
seal the suction-chamber by filling the box A with water 



516 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

outside of the adjustable heads F. A portion of this water 
finds its way beneath the deckle-straps and wets the edges 
of the sheet of pulp on the apron D, thus weakening the 
edges of the sheet and interfering with the proper uniform 
drying and calendering of the sheet by the rollers used for 
that purpose. 

In carrying out his invention Mr. Bratton dispenses with 
the usual pump, and uses in place of it an ejector, «/, which 
effects the rapid removal of the water from the box J., 
and is not affected in its action by the admixture of air with 
the water. For this reason the present inventor claims to 
be enabled to dispense with the water-seal for the heads F^ 
and thus obviate the objections above mentioned, and there 
being no leakage of air to guard against, he is also enabled 
to maintain in the suction-chamber G a condition more 
nearly approaching a perfect vacuum than is possible with 
the pump, the water being thus rapidly drawn from the 
sheet of pulp, so that the speed of the apron can be mate- 
rially increased without risk of carrying off the pulp while 
it still retains a surplus of moisture. Another advantage of 
using the ejector in place of the pump is the facility with 
which the ejector can be cleansed by passing a current of 
clean water through it. 

It is the common practice to convey the discharge from 
the suction-box of the machine back to the mixing-box, in 
order to save the particles of pulp carried off with the water. 

In making colored paper the particles of colored pulp fill 
the interstices in the cylinder, valve-boxes, and other parts 
of an exhaust-pump to such an extent that it is difficult to 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



517 



properly clean the latter when changmg from the manufac- 
ture of paper of one color to that of another color, or from 
colored to white paper, and m consequence the first paper 
produced after the change is apt to be streaky or spotted. 
This objection is claimed to be effectually overcome by this 
invention, there being no parts in the ejector which would 
serve to retain the colored particles of pulp, so that the 
thorough cleansing of the ejector can be effected in a few 
moments. 

Incidental to the use of the -ejector in place of the pump 
are the further advantages of its compactness, its freedom 
from liability to get out of order, and the facility with which 
it can be used in positions where the use of a pump would 
be impossible. 

Various forms of ejectors may be used in carrying out 
Mr. Bratton's invention; but the form which the inventor 
states he has found to answer well in prac- 
tice, and which he prefers to employ, is 
that shown in Fig. 148, a being the steam- 
chamber of the ejector, having a branch, 
a' ; h the inlet and d the outlet branch. 
The branch h has a conical end and the 
branch d a flaring mouth, and the steam 
passes from the chamber a through the 
tapering annular passage thus formed, the 
water from the suction-box being drawn 
through the branch h and forced from the 
branch d. A free and unbroken flow of water through the 
branches h and d is thus permitted, whereas in an ordinary 



Fis- 148. 




518 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



ejector the water takes a more or less circuitous course 
through a contracted passage, and when the water carries 
with it numerous particles of pulp it has a tendency to clog 
such a passage and interfere with the proper working of the 
device. 

The ejector is shown in a vertical position at the side of 
the machine ; but it may be located wherever convenience 
or circumstances may suggest. 

Dandy-Roll for Paper- Maldng Machines. 

The invention shown in Figs. 149 to 153 is that of Mr. 
David McKay, of Holyoke, Mass., and consists of a catch- 
pan placed inside of and hung upon the centre shaft of 
dandy-rolls used in paper-machines for the purpose of clean- 
ing the inside of dandy-rolls of froth and other accumula- 
tions. 

Fiff. 149. 




Fia. 150. 




Figure 149 is an ordinary dandy-roll. Fig. 150 is a long- 
section view of a dandy-roll with the catch-pan A attached. 
Fig. 151 is a transverse section of dandy-roll without the 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



519 



catch-pan. Fig. 152 is a transverse section of dandy-roll 
with catch-pan B attached. Fig. 153 is a view, in perspec- 
tive, of the catch-pan. 



Fiff. 151. 




FijT. 152. 




Fis. 153. 




* The dandy-roll, the purpose of which is to make both 
surfaces of the paper alike, is a hollow cylinder of woven 
wire. As the roll revolves upon the wet paper, particles of 
the paper-pulp are forced through the wire net-work of the 
roll until, accumulating in masses inside of the roll, they are 
again forced out through the wire net-work upon the paper, 
blotching and marring its surface. Heretofore the manner 
in which these accumulations have been removed was to 
take the dandy-roll out of position, causing a stoppage of 
the machine and a consequent loss of production. 

The catch-pan, as seen in Fig. 150, hangs upon the centre 
shaft of the dandy-roll, and is held by its own weight in an 
upright position while the roll revolves, catching the drip- 
pings from the top of the inside of the roll, and also catch- 
ing upon the edge of the pan, which may be made of sheet- 



520 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

tin or other material of like thinness, the particles of pulp or 
other matter forced through the net-work surface of the roll. 
Through the opening B^ Figs. 152 and 153, in one end of 
the catch-pan, the contents of the pan will be constantly 
carried off at the end of the dandy-roll. If the accumula- 
tions in the pan are such as will not run off freely through 
the opening B^ Fig. 152, a stream of water is to be poured 
into the pan at the opposite end, or otherwise. 

Regulating the Speed of the various portions of 
Pap)er-Maldng Machines, 

That part of the machinery in a paper-mill which drives 
the " machine,'' the couch-roll, the presser-roUs, the drying- 
cylinders, and the calenders, has long been susceptible of 
improvements ; the object being to allow ready access to 
be had to the machine. This can be accomplished by doing 
away with a train of shafting, spur and mitre-wheels, belts, 
pulleys, etc., all arranged on the floor alongside of the machine 
and its adjuncts, impeding any approach with safety to the 
machine. A change of speed on any of the parts of the ma- 
chine singly or together can thereby be made much more easy 
and convenient. Ordinarily the whole train is driven from 
the main shaft, which, by means of spur-wheels, mitre-wheels, 
and pulleys with belts of various widths and lengths (some 
very long), drive the coucher, press-rolls, driers, and calen- 
ders in a long line. The belts are often very close to the 
train and extend nearly their whole length, making approach 
to the machine difficult and dangerous, even to the loss of life 
in more than one case in a single mill, since in order to 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 521 

reach the machine for oiling or any other purpose it is 
necessary to crawl through and between long wide belts 
when in motion, and the very first principle in using ma- 
chinery — safety to the operatives — is quite disregarded. 

In running a paper-machine it is absolutely necessary that 
the harmony between the diiferent parts should be main- 
tained by exact and quick adjustments. The paper, while 
passing over the different parts of the machine, is always 
kept under a strong but steady tension, which must neces- 
sarily stretch it lengthwise, especially while it is wet. The 
first press, in drawing the web from the wire while it is in a 
very soft condition, will stretch it somewhat. Another 
small addition to its length is made by the second press, 
while it will shrink on the driers, and again become elon- 
gated on the calenders. If all the pulleys for driving the 
different parts have been fixed for a certain speed, weight of 
paper, and kind of pulp, so as to adapt themselves to these 
elongations and contractions, and suddenly a change in the 
pulp occurs — if it is beaten longer or shorter, if it is thicker, 
or if " imperfections" have entered into its composition — it 
will be found that the first press and following parts are 
pulling the web either too much or too little for its changed 
character and tenacity, and the paper breaks or is injured. 
The same experience will be had if the paper be made 
thinner or thicker ; even if the speed of the whole machine 
only be changed, everything else remaining as before, the 
paper may be differently formed on the wire. It may leave 
the coucher with more or less water, and its tenacity will be 
increased or decreased. Any inequality of tension, too, is 



522 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

liable to make a wrinkle in the calendering, and much more 
so to break the sheet. Great quantities of paper are 
destroyed by these causes, which are constantly occurring, 
often three or four times during a day's work, making it 
necessary that the relative speeds of the presses, driers, and 
calenders should be frequently but slightly changed. The 
common way of accomplishing this is by what is termed 
"lagging." A number of strips of canvas or felting or thick 
cloth about as wide as the face of the pulley, called " lag- 
ging," are kept on hand. When a change of speed is 
desired one of these is smeared with "• lagging-wax," so 
called, and laid on the surface of the driving- pulley to 
increase its diameter and quicken the speed of the pulley or 
gear at the other end of the shaft. Through the number 
and length of the strips held on the pulley by the wax any 
slight change can be produced, and though a very rude and 
clumsy expedient, this lagging has been in almost universal 
use up to the present time, as nothing practical has yet been 
found to supersede it. Expanding pulleys of various forms 
and other devices have been tried ; but some have been found 
too complicated, some get out of order too easily, some cannot 
be adjusted without stopping the machine, and others, still, 
require occasional lagging. In the usual way, in the train for 
running the machine, are two or three sets of gearing and 
from four to six heavy belts from twelve to sixteen inches 
wide and from eight to twenty-four feet long, all very expen- 
sive in their first cost and difficult to keep in repair, strained 
to their fullest tension, while by the use of the invention 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



523 



shown ill Figs. 154 to 156, which is that of Mr. Marshall, 
of Turner's Falls, Mass., the belts used are only few in 
number, are short — none over four inches wide — and all run 
vertically, not interfering with work and ready access to the 
machine. 

Mr. Marshall's invention dispenses entirely with lagging, 
does away with the long and dangerous train of shafting, 
wheels, pulleys, and belts on the floor by the side of the 
machine, giving free approach to all its parts. Mr. Marshall 
claims that by his invention danger is avoided, safety 
increased, regularity of tension secured, speed regulated, 
power reduced, and production increased. 

Vi<r. 154. 




Fig. 156 is 



Figure 154 is a plan view of the machinery 
a side elevation of a set of pulleys, etc. Fig. 155 is a side 
view of the belt-shipper and the device for actuating it. 



524 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Fiij. 155. Fio;. 156. 





A represents the couch-roll. B 
and C represent the first and second 
press-rolls. D represents the drying- 
cylmders. E represents the calenders. 
F represents the main driving-shaft 
running in hangers overhead. G re- 
presents one of the pair of cone- 
pulleys driving the couch. G' repre- 
sents one of the pair of cone-pulleys 
driving first press-roll. G^ represents 
one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving 
second press-rolls. G ^ represents one of the pair of cone- 
pulleys driving drying-cylinders. G'^ represents one of the 
pair of cone-pulleys driving the calender-rolls. 

The main shaft F runs overhead instead of on the floor. 
This removes the great obstacle to approaching the machine, 
and although placing shafting overhead rather than on the 
floor is not of itself new, yet in running the machinery of a 
paper-machine, in connection with the other devices of this 
invention, it has never before been done. On the shaft F 
are fixed conical pulleys or drums, each of which is con- 
nected by a belt with another corresponding one below, 
driving each of the presses, the driers, and the calenders. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 525 

To any one at all familiar with mechanics it will he obvious 
that when the belt is moved up on the increasing form of 
one of these cone-pulleys, it is correspondingly moved down 
on the decreasing face of the other pulley, and thereby 
increases its speed and consequently that of the roller or 
drier, to which it is connected by a mitre-wheel gearing into 
a shaft on which the roller or drier is fixed at a right angle 
to that running the cone-pulley ; and, vice versa, when the 
belt running over the cone-pulley on the driving-shaft over- 
head is shifted toward the decreasing face of the pulley, the 
one on which it turns below will be diminished in speed. 
Now, the capability to increase or decrease the speed of any 
one of these rollers — couch, press, calender, or driers — at 
will in a moment's time, and to any exent ever so small, has 
never been effectually done on any paper-machine ever made, 
and it is what Mr. Marshall claims to accomplish by means 
of these cone-pulleys and the belt-shippers to be now de- 
scribed. 

The belt-shipper H- — one for each pair of cone pulleys-^ 
is hung at a convenient height midway between the two 
pulleys, and of a length suitable to reach from the upper to 
the lower pulley. The ends are forked as usual in belt- 
shippers of all kinds. To enable the shipper, which is of 
some length, to be held firmly in place and yet to move 
readily when required, the arms a are formed at their 
middle into a sleeve or box, h — say, fourteen to sixteen 
inches long — through which passes a bar, c, securely bolted 
to supports, and on this bar the shipper moves steadily. 
To the upper side of this sleeve b is bolted a box, nut, or 



526 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

female screw, through which passes the male screw e, 
rumiing in fixed gudgeons on the same supports that hold 
the bar c, and having on one end a hand-wheel, /, by 
which the screw is readily turned. 

The operation of these devices will be readily seen, and 
how the speed of any of the rollers can be adjusted instantly 
to suit circumstances. For instance, if from a slight 
change in the stock in thickness, or in its being beaten up, 
it should take more water, and should, in passing over the 
driers, gain a trifle more on the calenders than it had been 
running, so as to become a little slack on reaching the 
calender, the machine-tender in an instant seizes the hand- 
wheel on the belt-shipper, which moves the belt on G^, and 
which runs the calender-rolls, gives it two or three turns to 
the left, runs the belt up on G^, and correspondingly down on 
the opposite pulley on the shaft below, and instantly brings 
up the speed to the extent required ; and so with any one or all. 

Cone-pulleys have long been in use for changing speed 
on various machines, and in various ways, but never in any 
such combination as Mr. Marshall presents, by the operation 
of which, as described, he secures greater convenience and 
certainty in controlling the speed of every member of the 
machine, more equal tension of the stock and paper, a 
considerable saving of power in running the machine, a 
decided saving of labor in avoiding lagging, and also much 
expense in the care and straining of long heavy belts, by 
which he gets a large increase in the production of paper, 
more room in working about the machine, which, most 
important of all, allows the machine tender easy and 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 527 

comfortable access to every part of the machine with entire 
safety and unexposed to the constant danger of losing his 
hfe among the compUcation of belts and gearing of machines 
as at present commonly used. 

Mr, Marshall has also made another improvement which 
relates to that part of the machinery of a paper-mill which 
drives the " machine" and all the concomitant parts, and it 
is a continuation of and a combination with the devices 
shown in Figs. 154 to 156. 

In running a paper-machine it is absolutely necessary 
that the harmony between the different parts should be 
preserved and maintained by exact and quick adjustments, 
as has previously been stated ; but it is also of equal import- 
ance to provide, in the driving apparatus for making paper, for 
maintaining in certain portions of the machinery a constant 
and unvarying rate of speed as it is delivered from the 
controlled action of the steam-engine, water-wheel, or what- 
ever motive power impels the whole machinery. All practical 
paper-makers know that this applies thoroughly to the pump 
which returns the water strained from the paper pulp as it is 
being formed into paper on the Fourdrinier wire, to the 
screens through which the pulp is strained on its passage to 
the Fourdrinier wire, to the agitators which keep the pulp 
in motion in the vat, and to the " shake" which gives the 
oscillating motion to the "wire." But Avhile it is of such 
importance to maintain in all the above-mentioned parts of 
paper machinery a constant and uniform speed, it is equally 
necessary that the couch-rolls, the press-rolls, the driers, and 
calenders, including all those parts of a paper-machine on 



528 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

which the paper is formed, pressed, dried, and calendered, 
must, in order to produce the full amount of paper the ma- 
chine is capable of making economically, be varied and run 
at a greater or less speed, according to the character of thg 
pulp and the thickness of the paper manufactured* The pro- 
vision ordinarily made to accomplish this is to use gears of 
different sizes at a point on the main line of shafting between 
the point of transmission to those parts necessary to run at 
a constant speed and those parts which it is desirable to 
increase or diminish in speed. This is commonly done by 
cutting the main line of shafting at the desired point, and 
employing a counter-shaft running parallel to the main 
shaft and connected at each end by spur-gears to the two 
sections of the main line. The employment of different 
sizes of spur-wheels at these points of connection gives any 
desired speed to the couch-rolls, press-rolls, driers, and 
calenders, as the speed at that point of the main shaft 
transmitting power to these several points is varied by 
changing the spur-gears at the points of connection with 
that part of the main line which runs at a constant and 
unvarying speed. This is an unhandy and expensive way 
of working, for as the changing of the spur-gear necessitates 
the stopping of the whole paper-machine while the alteration 
is being made, considerable time is lost in accomplishing the 
shifts. Efforts have been made to obviate the necessity of 
stopping the machine while the changes are being made by 
combining two cone-pulleys ten to twelve feet long with 
the speed-gear running from one hundred and fifty to two 
hundred and twenty-five revolutions per minute ; but they 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 529 

have never been so effectual as to be satisfactory. The length 
of these cones — ten to twelve feet — does not admit of a high 
speed, on account of the springing of the cones, and it is 
necessary to use a belt at least ten inches wide, in order 
to transmit sufficient power to drive the machine, and as a 
belt of this width can work to advantage only on cones of 
a moderate pitch, the range of the change of speed as con- 
trolled by the pitch and length of the cone is not sufficient 
to make all the changes of speed required in producing 
paper at rates of from twenty to two hundred feet per minute, 
and it has still been found necessary to use three or more 
sets of spur-gears in connection with these cone-pulleys. 
The extent of change of speed allowed by these cones from 
the slowest to the fastest being only about sixty feet per 
minute, when a change in the thickness of paper being 
made requires a greater rate of speed than this, the machine 
must be stopped and a change of the speed-gears must be 
made. So manufacturers have found that all their efforts to 
effect the desired changes of speed by the use of the cone- 
pulleys alone as commonly employed have been but partially 
successful. Again, the use of two long cone-pulleys in 
combination with the common back line or driving shafting 
of a paper-machine necessitated so much additional room on 
the back side of the machine that it has commonly been 
found necessary to erect a small building outside the 
machine-house, but attached to it, in which to operate these 
unwieldy cones. To accomplish this desirable purpose of 
changing the speed of the machine at once without the 
disagreeable necessity of stopping it and changing the gear- 

34 



530 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



ing, and without requiring any additional floor room, Mr. 
Marshall combines four cone-pulleys in pairs — one of each 
pair placed above the other — about five or six feet long, or 
half the length of those commonly used, and of different 
diameters, as shown in Fig. 157. These cones, being 
comparatively short, admit of a high rate of speed, which 
permits the use of a narrow belt of only four inches in 
width. This gives the required power, and being able to 
use these narrow belts, it is possible to get a much sharper 
pitch of the cones, and thus the required range of speed is 
obtained without the annoyance of stopping the machine to 
change the gear. By placing these pulleys one above the 
other, and one pair driving the other, the inventor greatly 
economizes space and obviates the employment of a long, 
wide belt, which is always costly and troublesome. 

Fis. 157. 




Fig. 157 is an elevation, partly in section, illustrating 
Mr. Marshall's invention. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 531 

L is the main driving-shaft, connected with the motor by 
pulley and belt, and terminates at K. 

M is the main driving cone-pulley, connected by a belt 
with the cone-pulley N. placed underneath it. On the same 
shaft with N is the cone-pulley 0, the larger end of the 
pulley being of the same size as the small end of the 
pulley N. The cone-pulley is connected with the cone- 
pulley P, placed over it, and driven by a belt passing over 
both. The cone-pulley P is on a short shaft overhead, 
exj;ending to and stopping at its bearing K on the right, 
and on the left extending far enough beyond the bearing 7 
to carry a spur-wheel, R. The belts connecting all the 
cone-pulleys are controlled by the shipper, as shown in 
Figs. 154 to 156. On the shaft P, which is stopped and 
has its bearing in the rear of bearing 7, is a spur-wheel 
engaging in the wheel P, which carries the shaft P, with 
all its dependencies. So it will be seen that the main shaft 
L, with all its driving-power, runs steadily and always the 
same. The power for the other parts of the machine is 
communicated from M to iV, to and P, and by the spur- 
gears to the shaft P, from which are run the couch-rolls, the 
press-rolls, the drier, and the calenders, and the speed of all 
these together may be accelerated or slackened to any 
desired extent by simply moving the belts on the two pairs 
of pulleys M N, P, while the individual parts are each 
controlled by the arrangement of cone-pulleys as shown in 
Figs. 154 to 156. 

V V are friction- wheels — one on the main shaft P, the 
other on a counter-shaft, W, which extends in the rear of 



5S2 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the cone-pulleys to the mitre-gears 8, for drivmg the felt 
washers 2 2 — which are necessarily driven from the main 
shaft, to insure the necessary uniformity of speed, which 
they could not have if driven from the shaft bearing the 
cone-pulleys. These friction-wheels are controlled by a 
screw, JT, engaging in the bearing of the shaft W. 

F is a pump used for returning the water used in forming 
the paper. 

Z Z are the screens for straining the pulp. 6 is the pul- 
ley that drives the " shake," All these require to be driven 
by a steady, unvarying power, and _ are therefore necessarily 
attached to the main shaft by belts and pulleys. 

Drying Cylinders. 

Cast-iron cylinders, perfectly true on their surfaces, and 
having well balanced bodies are used for drying machine- 
made paper. 

It is necessary that the shells of the driers should be of 
uniform thickness, and that the surfaces should be entirely 
free from sand holes, it is consequently desirable that these 
shells should be cast in loam and that they should be turned 
true on the inside as well as on their surfaces. 

Steam is admitted to the drying cylinders through hollow 
journals. Usually these journals are provided with a valve- 
seat in which is arranged a valve, which is held to its seat 
by the pressure of the steam within the drum or cylinder. 
When a very low pressure of steam is employed in the 
cylinder, the valve is not held tightly to its seat, and permits 
foreign substances and sediment to work between the valve 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



^33 



and its seat, whereby the parts are caused to wear unevenly 
and become leaky. 

The object of Roach's invention, shown in Fig. 158, is to 
provide the joint with means whereby the valve is retained 
in its seat at all times. 

Fig. 158 is a vertical section of Roach's improved pipe- 
joint applied to a hollow journal. 

Fig. 158. 




A represents the drum or cylinder, and a the hollow 
journal upon which the drum rotates, and which is supported 
in a suitable bearing, B. 

D represents a head or cap, which is applied to the end 
of the hollow journal and provided with a depression or 
cavity, d, into which the end of the journal is fitted. The 
head D is secured to the journal by screw-bolts, d\ so as to 



534 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

turn therewith ; or, if preferred, the head and journal may 
be provided, respectively, with screw-threads and the head 
screwed on the journal. The head D is provided with a 
valve-seat, d;\ of conical, oval, or other suitable form, in 
which is seated a valve, e, of similar form. The valve e is 
secured to a steam-pipe, /, by means of an internal screw- 
thread, which engages with an external screw-thread formed 
on the inner end of the pipe /. 

If preferred, the valve may be formed in one piece with 
the steam-pipe /. The pipe / opens into the hollow jour- 
nal, and may extend through it into the cylinder A, if 
desired. 

g represents a spiral or other suitable spring, which sur- 
rounds the steam-pipe/, and bears with its inner end against 
the head Z>, and with its opposite end against a collar, 7i, 
which is secured to the pipe / by a set-screw, W. The spring 
g tends to draw the pipe / and valve e outwardly, whereby 
the valve is forced tightly against its seat. The tension of 
the spring can be regulated by means of the collar h and 
set-screw li'. 

By this construction the valve is held on its seat at all 
times, thereby preventing the accumulation of sediment 
between the valve and its seat, which results in an unequal 
wear of the parts, causing leakage, and it also prevents cor- 
rosion of the parts when the machine is not in operation. 

It has also been a common practice to force the steam for 
heating directly into the drying-cylinders through the jour- 
nals, into the ends of which the steam-pipe is packed, the 
journal, in effect, being made only a continuation of the 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



535 



steam-pipe, but always with a leakage and escape of steam, 
from the inevitable wear of the end of the stationary steam- 
pipe being packed into the moving grinding-journal, requir- 
ing constant repacking. 

The condensed water, which accumulates rapidly in these 
drying cylinders, has usually been conducted out by means 
of a pipe attached to the inside of the cylinder-head, extend- 
ing across its diameter, and curved near the bottom, so as to 
take up at each revolution a quantity of water which was 
blown out or discharged through an opening in the cylinder- 
head as at each revolution of the cylinder it was lifted and 
turned over. As this water was blown out a consider- 
able amount of steam escaped with it, and continued to do 
so till the end of the discharge-pipe, in revolving, was again 
filled with water. The percentage of steam thus escaping 
and wasted is large enough to very materially affect the heat 
in the cylinder, and in a battery of four, six, or more, draws 
very largely on the supply of steam, and adds a heavy item 
to the operating expenses of the mill. 

Fijr. 159. 




Fig. 159 shows a longitudinal section through the drying 
cylinder of Jaiminson's improvement in steam-traps. 

A is the drying-cylinder. B is the steam-pipe passing 



536 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

through the journals of the cylinder and the cylinder longi- 
tudinally, having in it perforations, a, for the discharge of 
the steam to heat the drier, of the same capacity as the pipe 
itself In this pipe, midway between the cylinder-heads, is a 
partition, on one side of which steam enters the cylinder, 
and on the other the water condensed is discharged. These 
perforations are in the half of the pipe next the entrance of 
the steam. On the other side of this partition, in the steam- 
pipe B, is fastened a pipe, (7, which passes almost to the 
bottom of the cylinder, when it turns and terminates with a 
valve or gate, E. This gate or valve E has an opening in 
its side, which is closed by a gate balanced on a pin. On 
the upper end of this sliding gate is fastened a rod projecting 
forward some inches. To the end of this rod is secured a 
float, Z), which, rising on the surface as the water increases 
in the bottom of the cylinder, pushes back the rod attached 
to it and to the sliding gate, whereby the gate is opened and 
the water of condensation rushes into the valve-opening, and, 
by the pressure of the steam, is forced up. into the closed 
half of the steam-pipe and out through it, where, by a con- 
nection on its end, it is conveyed into a tank, or back to the 
boiler, without the loss of heat or the escape of steam, the 
float falling just as fast as the water is lowered by the dis- 
charge, and the gate is closed at the same rate. 

It will be seen that in this way, as the water is discharged 
as the gate is open, and as that is automatically controlled 
by the amount of water acting on the float, nothing but 
water can pass out, and not a particle of steam can escape 
or be wasted. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



537 



The steam-pipe passing tliroiigh the journals of the cylin- 
der is made tight at both ends by a sleeve of brass or other 
metal, that may be readily renewed, fitting closely into the 
journal-bearings with ordinary steam-packing, preventing all 
loss of steam. This of itself is a great advantage over the 
ordinary way of driving the steam directly through the jour- 
nal into the cylinder, as it is impossible with the constant 
wear of the journal against the end of the steam-pipe to 
make the fitting continue secure and steam tight. 

With the device shown in Fig. 159 the water, it is claimed, 
is kept constantly discharging without the loss of a particle 
of steam either through the discharge-pipe or by leakage at 
the journals. 

Single CyUnder Machine. 
A machine adapted to the forming of thin papers and 

Fis. 160. 




such as are required to be smooth on only one face is illus- 
It is a modification of the Fourdrinier 



trated in Fig. 160 



538 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

machine, and consists of an ordinary paper-machine as far as 
the couch-rolls A A. After leaving the couch-rolls the 
paper is carried backwards on the top of the endless belt B, 
and is brought in contact and adheres at d with the large 
heated cylinder C. The press-roll ^ presses the paper 
against the periphery of the cylinder C, and the paper pass- 
ing around the cylinder is wound up when quite dry on 
reels at G, and is afterward cut or calendered in the usual 
way. 

The felt, as it travels, passes through the box If, which is 
filled with water and acts as a belt washer. 

Calendering. 

Leading Paper through Calender- Rolls. — Hitherto in 
the process of calendering the paper web, as it passes con- 
tinuously from the driers of the machine, has been conducted 
and guided through the stack of calender-rolls by the fingers 
of the machine tender, and serious accidents are continually 
occurring, in which the fingers of the operator get jammed 
and terribly bruised and the danger multiplied, since the 
paper web has to be restored every time its continuity is 
interrupted for any cause whatsoever. Moreover, in the 
process of " mending up" a large amount of " broken" is 
produced, because the draft and tension across the paper 
web are not uniform, and folds or wrinkles are caused, which 
at once make a crack or break in the paper, and these con- 
tinue until the tension is properly restored, the paper during 
this interval being rendered useless for commercial purposes. 

SmitlCs Pneumatic Guide. — To overcome the objections 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



539 



which have been mentioned, and to render the waste of the 
paper less and make the effort of mending-up not so labor- 
ious to the operative, and reduce the danger to a minimum, 
various mechanical contrivances have been devised. 

Fig. 161 illustrates a pneumatic device for leading paper 
through calender-rolls ; it is the invention of Mr. Richard 
Smith, of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada. 

Fig. 161 is a side elevation of Mr. Smith's invention 
arranged as a whole and fitted upon the calender-roll stack 
and drier-frame, the two upper rolls being in section. 

Fis. 161. 




As the inventor proposes to use a blast of air or its equiva- 
lent (either suction or pressure) in order to guide the paper 
web automatically through and around the rolls, it becomes 



540 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

necessary to partially cover and protect a portion of the 
surface of the calender-rolls in order to produce the de- 
sired effect, by confining the current of air, and thus oblige 
it to assume a certain direction, and carry with it the advance 
end of the paper web to be led between the rolls. There 
is therefore shown, as partially closing the exterior peri- 
pheries of the rolls, a series of alternately oppositely-disposed 
wind-cases, 1 1' P^ etc., which are plates bent preferably 
concentric with the curvature of the rolls and extending 
their entire length. 

In revolving bodies centripetal force always exerts a some- 
what important function upon an object located upon its 
surface ; hence, and more especially in paper-making ma- 
chines, the paper web has a great tendency to adhere to the 
surface of the calender-rolls, and pass continuously around 
one roll in lieu of advancing on and around the next adja- 
cent roll. This fact is especially noticeable in the manufac- 
ture of light-weight paper, and it is found necessary to em- 
ploy in connection with the wind-cases above alluded to, a 
device called a " doctor." In this especial instance the 
inventor has terminated the upper extremity of the wind^ 
cases, which enter between two rolls in the shape of a straight 
steel bar or doctor, ilf, which is bevelled to coincide, or 
approximately so, with the line of a tangent to the roll at 
the point where the doctor touches the roll. The most 
effective position is a point a short distance to one side of 
the place of contact between the two rolls where the exterior 
surface of the top roll first begins to assume an upward path 
of movement in its rotation ; hence, when the paper after a 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 541 

break is to be mended up, the operator raises the lever and 
advances the wind-cases towards the rolls and in close prox- 
imity thereto, while their respective doctors are brought in 
close contact with the upwardly-moving surface of each roll, 
and thus any tendency which the paper web may have as it 
emerges from one side between two rolls to the other to pass 
up and wind around the top roll of the pair, is instantly 
checked by the doctor, which, as the curve of the latter coin- 
cides with the interior curve of the wind-case, it guides the 
paper along in its proper course down around the lower roll 
of the pair. The same action ensues as the paper web 
emerges from between the next two rolls and meets the next 
doctor, and so on down between the rolls composing the 
stack. 

Mounted upon the wind-cases, with which they are suit- 
ably connected, there is disposed a series of pipes, I T /^, etc. 
The latter communicate with a blower, X, either exhaust or 
pressure, and from which the air is obtained as means for 
guiding and passing the paper web through the rolls. 

Operatio7i. — The operation of the apparatus, shown in 
Fig. 161, is as follows, with the various rolls and pulleys 
moving in the direction of the arrows, as indicated: The 
paper web has been interrupted and broken from some cause, 
and it must be restored ; hence the operator drops the table 
C into a horizontal position and lifts the lever H^ to bring 
the doctors to bear against the rolls h h' W^ etc., and the 
wind-cases IIP near to the surfaces of the rolls. The 
paper is then passed around the rolls a a and drier J.', 
thence over the table C between the quick-running rolls 



542 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

E E\ which exert sufficient tension upon the web commen- 
surate with its strength, hence adjustable but not enough to 
break it. Immediately upon the proper restoration of the 
tension and removal of the slack consequent upon the mend- 
ing up, the operator swings the table upward, the paper 
web meantime continuously passing along until the movable 
cutter g has engaged with and passed the fixed cutter g' 
upon the arms G G'. The paper web is then instantly 
severed, and the draft rolls carry and feed it directly to the 
tapes d? d? d?^ whence it is conveyed to the entrance of the 
wind-case /in a line directly at right angles to the calender- 
rolls — an important feature, since it obviates the loss of 
paper incidental to the ordinary method, where the paper 
web is introduced at an angle with the axis of. rotation of 
the rolls. Upon the arrival of the advance end of the paper 
web in front of the wind-case the pressure from the air- 
current through the pipe I forces it quickly around the roll 
7i, while the interior surface of the case maintains and guides 
it in a proper direction between the rolls h and li'. Imme- 
diately after the web emerges from between the rolls, although 
in close contact and with a tendency to pass up and wind 
around the upper one, it at once encounters the doctor, 
which removes it therefrom and compels it to follow the 
curve of the wind-case /', when the pressure from the air- 
current emerging from the pipe /' still further advances it, 
and so on through the rolls of the stack, when it may either 
be passed onward and led through in a similar manner by 
means of a second series of tapes, 6? d^, to a second stack, or 
be led to the reels, upon which it is temporarily stored. 



. MAKING AND FINISHING. 543 

A great advantage accrues by the operation of conducting 
paper through calender-rolls in the manner just described— r- 
that is, the current of air in passing over the surface of the 
paper exercises a decided influence in cooling the heated 
continuous paper web as it passes from the driers. Hitherto 
it has been customary to grind and finish the calender-rolls 
cold ; hence, after being mounted in proper position, and the 
heated web has passed through them for any length of time, 
the rolls become hot and expand, and the result is that the 
faces of the rolls do not coincide, since they were ground to 
fit when in cool position. Further, it is found in practice 
that a special cold blast of air applied across the web prior 
to its entrance between the rolls of the stack and independent 
of the current inducing the progress of the web through the 
stack, accomplishes the cooling of the individual rolls to 
remain cold ; hence there is no expansion, and the surfaces 
coincide exactly with the greatest degree of efficiency. 

CraiVbS Entering Guide. — The device for threading calen- 
der-rolls, shown in Figs. 162 to 164, is the invention of Mr. 
Madison H. Cram, of Pawtucket, R. I., and its object is to 
provide a simple means for guiding the paper between the 
rolls with certainty and precision; and it consists in the 
combination, with the set of calender-rolls, of two narrow 
endless belts passing together between the rolls, and means 
for shifting the location of the belt along the rolls. 

Fig. 162 is an end elevation of a set of calender-rolls pro- 
vided with Mr. Cram's improvement. Fig. 163 is a rear 
elevation of the same. Fig. 164 is a vertical section taken 



5M 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



in the line of the inner face of the bearing standard, showing 
the belts running on the large diameter of the rolls. 



Fia. 162. 



Fi2. 163. 



Fis. 164. 




A A are the bearing standards, in which the rolls B B B 
are placed one above the other with their peripheries touch- 
ing each other. The upper ends of the standards A A are 
connected by means of the parallel guide-rods C C\ upon 
which is placed the sliding belt-carriage D, a sliding move- 
ment being imparted to the carriage along the rods by 
means of the pivoted shipper-handle a, provided with a slot, 
h, which embraces the smaller outer end of the stud c pro- 
jecting from the carriage. The carriage I) is provided with 
the loose belt-carrying pulleys d, e, and /, which revolve 
upon suitable pins or studs ; and upon the rods g and A, 
which extend from one of the bearing-standards to the other, 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 545 

near the base of the same, are placed the loose belt-carry- 
ing pulleys i and j, these pulleys being made capable of a 
sliding movement along the rods ; and also upon a rod 7c, 
which extends from one of the bearing-standards to the other 
at the same height and parallel with the guide-rod C, is 
placed the loose pulley ?. The weight E is provided with 
the upright ears 7?i ???, between which is pivoted the loose 
pulldy 0, and the opposite weight, E', is in like manner pro- 
vided with the loose pulley n. The narrow endless guide- 
belt E, when in its normal position, passes from the carriage- 
pulley / over the smaller end portion of the top roll B, thence 
downward from side to side between the smaller end portions 
of the rolls and under the bottom roll B, thence over the 
loose pulley j upon the rod h, then under the loose pulley o 
of the weight E, and upward to the pulley /. The narrow 
endless belt G, which runs over the rolls B in contact with 
the belt E, passes from the roll e of the carriage D over the 
smaller portion of the top roll B in contact with and above 
the belt E, thence downward with the belt E from side to 
side between the rolls B and outward over the loose pulley i 
upon the rod g, thence under the pulley n of the weight E' 
and upward to the loose pulley I upon the rod 7c, and thence 
over the loose carriage-pulley d to the pulley e, the belts E 
and G moving uniformly in the same direction between the 
rolls B B. 

Operation. — In guiding the paper into the calender-rolls 
the belts E and G are first moved from the smaller to the 
larger portion of the rolls by the lateral movement of the 
carriage D, by means of the shipper a. The paper fed 

35 



546 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

forward between the guiding-belts F and G, and upon the 
completion of its passage through the rolls of the carriage i), 
is moved back to its normal position, the guiding-belts being 
thus carried from the larger to the smaller portion of the 
rolls B B, the resulting slack of the belts F and G being 
taken up by the action of the weights FJ and FJ'. The 
calender-rolls are thus claimed to be rapidly threaded with- 
out danger to the workmen. 

The belt (r, instead of running directly upon the belt F, 
may run side by side with it if preferred. 

Moistening the Paper. — When the web of paper leaves 
the driers it is usually too hard to receive the impression of 
the calenders as readily as if its surface were slightly humid, 
and the paper is consequently sometimes moistened with 
steam just before it passes through the calenders. The 
paper is dampened by means of a three-eighths inch pipe 
perforated with small holes about the size of the head of a 
pin ; this pipe is secured to the frames of the calenders a 
short distance below the sheet where it first enters. Some- 
times two pipes are employed, one on each side of the 
calenders, so as to dampen each side of the paper. 

Automatic devices are used for turning off the steam from 
the pipe in case the paper should break so as to prevent the 
rolls from getting wet. 

Moistening the Calender Rolls. Brewer^s Method. — Some-, 
times it is desirable to moisten the calender-rolls of paper- 
making machines, the object being to heat the same from 
the exterior. 

The " steam condensing doctor" invented by Mr. Frank 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



547 



Brewer, of Marseilles, 111., is shown in Figs. 165, 166, and 
167, and it is designed to accomplish the purpose first 
named. 



Fis. 166. 



Fig. 165. 





The device, besides performing the above-mentioned func- 
tions, acts as a doctor to remove any waste from the rolls 
and prevents them from clogging. 

Fig. 165 represents a side elevation of a stand of calender- 
rolls with Mr. Brewer's device attached. Fig. 166 is a 
transverse vertical section through the rolls and the device. 
Fig. 167 is a longitudinal view of one of the pipes of the 
device partly broken away and partly in section. 

A designates the frame, upon which the rolls a a are 



548 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

journaled in proper bearings, the journals being designated 
by a' a'. 

hhh are pipes having their ends closed by the screw-caps 
having central circular openings, for a purpose hereafter 
explained. The caps may be secured in position, when 
screwed on the ends of the pipes by set-screws. 

Brackets are secured to the standards of the frame in such 
a position that pipes 5, near their ends, rest in concave notches 
of the brackets, and may be firmly held therein by the set- 
screws which pass through the flanges of the notches. The 
brackets may be secured in place in any desirable manner, 
but are preferably secured by means of set-screws passing 
through the slots and entering the outer sides of the standards, 
thus making the brackets adjustable. 

The pipes h cross the frame A transversely, and are pre- 
ferably so situated as to lie adjacent to every second one of 
the smaller rolls a, as shown in Fig. 166, the axis of each 
roll and its corresponding pipe being in the same horizontal 
plane. 

Each pipe h has a longitudinal slot, the edges of Avhich 
form a close joint against the surface of the roll. The slot 
does not extend the entire length of the pipe, its end being 
equally distant from the ends. The axis of the slot lies in 
the plane with those of the roll and pipe. 

C C are small steam-pipes running through the pipes h, 
passing through the openings in the caps and having their 
ends on one side closed. Their other ends are connected by 
proper couplings, ccc, to the steam-pipe C\ Fig. 165, which 
takes steam from any suitable source of supply. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 549 

Each pipe (7, Fig. 166, has a longitudinal series of small 
equidistant openings, Z>, on the side facing the roll, and 
lying in the same plane as the axes of the roll and pipe. 

d d are discharge-pipes for water of condensation, which 
pipes depend from the pipes h on the side adjacent to the 
steam-pipe C. 

Staam being admitted through the pipes C G passes out 
of the openings D and fills the spaces E between the pipes h 
and (7, and as the rolls rotate heats and moistens them. 

The pipes 5, on account of their contact to the rolls, act 
as doctors to the rolls to remove waste that might clog them. 

Newton^s Method. — The essential feature of the invention 
of Mr. Moses Newton, of Holyoke, Mass., illustrated in Figs. 
168 and 169, consists in the delivery of steam upon the sur- 
faces of the calender-rolls and in conveying running water 
to the interior of the rolls and thence out again, causing the 
condensation of the steam upon the surfaces of the rolls, 
thereby producing a polished surface on the paper as it passes 
over and between the calender-rolls. 

Fig. 168 shows a front elevation of an ordinary stack or 
series of calender-rolls provided with water and steam pipes 
in accordance with Mr. Newton's plan. Fig. 169 represents 
a vertical cross-section of the same. 

A illustrates the main frame of the apparatus ; B, the 
calender-rolls, arranged horizontally in the frame, as usual; 
C, pipes arranged to deliver cold water into a greater or 
less number of the calender-rolls at one end ; D, pipes 
which carry off the water from the opposite end of the rolls, 
and E a steam-pipe having any desired number of perforated 



550 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



arms or branches extending along the outside of the rolls 
and delivering the steam thereon. Water may be admitted 



Fis. U 



Fig. 169. 




to all or any desired number of the rolls, and the steam may, 
in like manner, be delivered to a greater or less number of 
the rolls, as circumstances may require. In most cases the 
best results are secured by supplying water to the top rolls 
pnly and delivering steam upon the bottom rolls only. 

The steam condenses upon the surface of the rolls, damp- 
ening them slightly, but with perfect uniformity, and the 
consequence is that the rolls impart to the surface of the 
paper a much smoother finish and higher polish than can 
be attained by the ordinary mode of procedure. When the 
steam and water pipes bear the relation shown in the illus- 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



551 



trations the condensation takes place gradually, but mainly 
upon the upper rolls, with which the steam comes in contact. 

Preventing the Burnmg or Injury hy Heating of the Paper 
or Material of which the Calender- Rolls is composed. — As 
paper-calender rolls are ordinarily constructed, the great 
pressure to which they are subjected, together with the 
speed 'at which they revolve, operate to heat their bearings, 
as well as the rolls themselves, and they are often completely 
ruined from this cause, the heat being so intense as to burn 
and destroy the paper or material of which the rolls are 
composed, especially near their ends. 

The object of the invention of Mr. H. J. Frink, of Chi- 
copee, Mass., illustrated in Fig, 170, is to provide one or 

Fi<r, 170. 




more internal annular chambers in the interior of a paper 
calender-roll, through which to force water to prevent the 
paper or material of which the roll is composed from being 
burned or injured by heating, and to keep the journal-bear- 
ings at as uniform temperature as possible. 

Fig. 1 70 is a sectional view of a calender-roll made accord- 



552 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

ing to Mr. Frink's invention, at a plane on the line of its 
axis, with the extreme end of the shaft in section, showing 
the application of a stuffing-box thereto. 

The main shaft should be of suitable size to withstand the 
great pressure to which it is subjected, in which, near each 
end, is made an annular groove, 5, into one of which are 
fitted two half-collars, 6, with preferably a little space be- 
tween its ends, and another collar, 7, is shrunk on to these 
two half-collars 6, which keeps them solid and firm in their 
groove. A retaining-head, 8, is then fitted snugly and firmly 
on to the main shaft 3 and against the retaining-collar 6, and 
a series of rings, 4, are then shrunk on to the main shaft 3 at 
suitable distances from each other, each ring, except that at 
each end, having a recess in it, or perforation, extending 
through it transversely, as shown at 10, the end ring 4 being 
fitted snugly against the head 8. An orifice, 9, is made in 
each end of the shaft at its axis, and another one is made 
from the side just inside of the first ring 4, which communi- 
cates with the orifice 9, made at the axis of the shaft ; and 
a tube, 13, is either forced on to the rings 4 or shrunk thereon, 
so as to fit the exterior of the rings snugly, to give the tube 
a firm and solid bearing against each ring ; the space 
between the tube and the shaft thus forming one or more 
annular chambers or compartments — if more than one, com- 
municating with each other through the transverse perfora- 
tion or cavity in the dividing rings 4. 

After the tube 13 is fitted properly in place, the paper or 
other substance, 2, is forced upon the tube 13 and against 
the fixed head 8 by hydraulic pressure. The other head 8 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 553 

is then forced into place against the roll 2, and the other 
end half-collars 6 are placed in their groove 5, and the collar 
7 is shrunk thereon, so that the heads 8, tube 13, and roll 2 
are solidly in place, with the annular chambers or compart- 
ments 14 inside the tube and between the rings 4. If the 
roll is to be made very short for special purposes, there may 
be but one of these annular chambers, the orifice 9 at each 
end of the shaft opening into the same chamber ; but if the 
roll is to be longer, there may be several of these annular 
chambers or compartments, with the orifice 9 at each end of 
the shaft opening into the end chamber or compartment. 
The exterior surface of the roll 2 is then turned off and 
finished, and a pipe, 15, is connected with the orifice 9 in 
each end of the shaft 3 with any ordinary and well-known 
packing or stuffing-box attachment, as shown at 12, so that 
the roll may revolve and the pipe remain stationary, and 
the joint where the two are connected may be water-tight. 

The constant flow of water through the annular chambers, 
14, between the tube and its shaft, it is claimed, keeps the 
whole of the roll 2 perfectly cool, so that it or its bearings 
never become heated to any appreciable or injurious extent. 
As this introduction of water into the roll operates to keep 
its journal-bearings at a more uniform degree of tempera- 
ture, it follows that the frictional bearing of the journals is 
also more uniform, inasmuch as there is little or no expan- 
sion of the metal of the journals, and no consequent increase 
of friction. 

It is evident that instead of securing or shrinking the 
rings 4 on to the shaft 3 the latter may be turned down, 



554 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

leaving a series of annular projections or collars, having sub- 
stantially the same form as the rings 4. 

Metliod for the easy Removal and Replacement of Calen- 
der-Rolls. — Usually calender-rolls of paper, wood, or metal 
are used in a " stack" as it is called ; or a series placed one 
above another, have been kept in place within the frame, 
which is made open from the bottom roll to the top, the 
opening only large enough to receive the journal-boxes of 
the rolls, which are perhaps from four to five inches in dia- 
meter, while the roll itself is from six to fifteen inches in 
diameter. 

The pillow-block is always solid, with the open-sided 
frame cast with it, and holds the bearings in which the 
lower and usually largest cylinder runs, and to which the 
power is applied, and by the friction of which upon the one 
next above and resting on it gives motion to the whole com- 
posing the stack. 

Calender-housings having been constructed in this way, it 
became necessary, whenever it was required to remove rolls 
for " turning-oiF'' or for any purpose, to hoist them up and 
out at the top one by one, even to the last one at the bottom, 
which is the driving-roll, and very heavy, weighing often 
several tons, making the removal of any of the lower ones 
especially a long, tedious, and expensive operation, and not 
unaccompanied with danger. 

The pressure upon the rolls has usually been applied by 
a screw or weighted lever working upon the upper roll, and 
it has been proposed to use, instead of this device, a cushion 
of steam or water or some other fluid, to be forced to any 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



555 



extent needed into a tight cylinder having a piston the rod 
of which, bearing upon the cap of the upper journal-box 
when the cylinder is charged, shall hold the rolls firmly 
down, and at the same time allow a slight recoil if anything 
of an improper thickness passes between the rolls. 

In th?s connection we illustrate in Figs. 171 and 172 the 
invention of Mr. George E. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, 
Mass. Fig. 171 is a front view of a "stack" of cylinder- 
rolls. Fig. 172 is an end view of the same. 

Fig. in. 




A represents the frame of heavy cast-iron holding the rolls, 
having between the sides an opening wide enough to allow 
the withdrawal of the rolls ; and these sides, near the bottom, 
are expanded in their breadth, and correspondingly in the 
opening, wide enough to allow of the withdrawal of the 
bottom or driving-roll. 



This frame has cast on it a base of 



556 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



sufficient width and thickness to sustain solidly the rolls, 
when it is bolted to the floor. 

G shows the boxes, each pair of which holds the journals 
of the respective rolls, and are of a peculiar construction, 
made in several parts, so that they can be taken to pieces 
and removed from the frame without disturbing the roll. 




The boxes in which the journal runs have on their sides 
trunnions D, which enter the adjustable sliding sides of the 
boxes. C represents the end of the journal /, the roll, 
having between it and the trunnion-box steel rings or 
washers. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 557 

The trunnion-box can be turned and adjusted in any way 
or removed with ease by slipping the sUding boxes on the 
trunnions. 

Through the sides of the frame, holes are drilled under 
each box, to allow a pin to be put in to sustain the boxes 
when it Is necessary to remove any roll below them. 

C is the upper roll, larger than the others, and upon the 
boxes of which the pressure is applied from the cylinders 
and pistons and piston-rods above them, to keep the rolls to 
a close pressure. 

D' is a steam-tight cylinder, one over each end of the rolls 
into the top of which steam is forced by a pipe /'. Within 
each cylinder is a piston, D'\ both having on their under 
sides piston-rods, which, when steam is let into the cylinder 
above the pistons, are forced down upon the boxes of the 
upper roll, thus giving the desired pressure. The steam 
is let on through the pipe /', and the pressure is controlled 
by steam-cocks. Entering the side of each cylinder D' about 
midway is a discharge-pipe, JT, for taking off the water of 
condensation through a steam-trap. 

H' is a pipe, with a trap, for drawing off any water that by 
leakage may accumulate under the piston. 

L L are yokes bolted into the caps and passing down under 
each roll as it is required to be raised. 

G' is a pillow-block, which sustains the lower or driving 
roll in the stack. This is bolted to the base of the frame of 
the calender-stack, but so that it can be removed by reliev- 
ing it of the pressure of the rolls. 



558 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Stripping Sheets of Paper from off the last Roller of 
Calendering Machines. — The stripping-fingers for stripping 
the sheets of paper from off the last roller of calendering 
machines as usually made are secured to one rod and their ends 
caused to press against the roller by means of a weight or 
spring actuating the rod. The fingers are rigid on the rod 
as regards lateral movement, and consequently bear always 
on the same parts of the roller, which necessitates frequent 
refitting of the same by grinding ; otherwise these grooves 
mark the paper being calendered. This objectionable feat- 
ure in calendering machines may be overcome by making 
the stripping-fingers independent in their action on the last 
roller by securing them to separate blocks provided with 
adjustable weights to cause the fingers to bear indepen- 
dently with the proper force against the roller, and the blocks 
have open bearings, by which they are placed on a fixed rod, 
thus enabling each finger to be moved laterally, so that its 
end may bear on different parts of the roller, thus causing 
an even wear to the surface of the roller. The fingers may 
be moved laterally, as desired, by the attendant while the 
machine is in operation, or taken off and placed and 
arranged on the fixed bar, to suit the sizes of the sheets of 
paper being calendered. 

In this connection we illustrate in Fig. 173 the invention 
of Mr. John McLaughlin, of Lee, Mass. 

Fig. 173 represents an elevation of a calendering-machine 
with the independent detachable fingers in position to strip 
the paper from off the last roller. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



559 



Only sufficient of a calendering-machine is shown to 
illustrate the application of the improved stripping-fingers. 

a a are the side frames, and &, c, and d the rollers, d is 
the last roller and it is against this that the stripping-fingers 
e e bear to discharge the paper from it into the receiving-box. 
Three stripping-fingers only are here shown, it of course 
being understood that the number of them will depend on 
the size of the machine and quality and size of the paper 
being calendered. 

Fig. 173. 




Fig. 173 illustrates the essential features of Mr. McLaugh- 
lin's invention. The finger e is secured in an angular 
position to the block or head / by means of a screw, which 
passes through a slot in the lower end of the finger to enable 
the upper end, which is tapered oif to a sharp edge, so as 
to lie close to the roller c?, to be set in line with the ends of 



560 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the other fingers, to strip the paper evenly off the roller d. 
The head or block / has an open bearing, by which it rests 
on the fixed rod ^, secured in brackets from the side frames 
a a ; and projecting from its sides in a horizontal position 
under the free end of the finger e is a rod which may be 
cast with the block or head/, or be screwed or driven in a 
hole therein ; and on this rod is placed a pressure-weight 
secured thereto by a screw. The position in which this 
weight is set on the rod determines the pressure of the end 
of the finger against the roller d. Each finger, with its 
carrying block or head / and pressure-weight, being inde- 
pendent, and merely resting on the fixed rod g, it will be 
observed may be set to bear on any part of the roller d 
desired, and be shifted about, so as to prevent grooves being 
worn in the roller, and also be readily removed from and 
replaced on the rod ^, according to the number required to 
properly strip the sheets of paper from the roller d. 

AVe have shown tapes i i on small pulleys i' i^, arranged 
and adapted to convey the paper off the fingers e e into a 
receptacle, placed under the lower pulleys ^^, but the recep- 
tacle is not shown in the illustrations. 

Plate Calenders. — Prior to the introduction of the method 
of glazing paper in super-calenders, the paper was first cut 
into sheets and passed through plate calenders. Plate 
calenders are still used to a considerable extent in English 
and Continental mills ; but there are probably not two mills 
in the United States where they are now employed. 

With these calenders the paper to be glazed is laid in 
single sheets between zinc or copper plates until a pile of 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



561 



about twenty-five sheets of paper are so arranged, and this 

stack of alternate sheets of paper and metallic plates is then 

passed forward and backward between the rollers, under 

great pressure, until the polished surface of the plates com- 

» 
municates a gloss to the paper. If a very highly calendered 

surface is desired the plates are frequently changed and the 
paper relaid between them. 

Fig. 174 shows a side elevation of a plate calender; it con- 
sists of two solid iron press rolls, B B, mounted in a frame- 
work, A. Pressure is applied to the top roll by means of 



levers and weights. 



FiiT. 174. 




In operating this form of calender the stock of paper and 
plates is first deposited on the table in front of the rolls and 
is then pushed forward until the rolls take a " bite" on the 
stack and carry it through the rolls, the stack then comes in 
contact with a shifting device which reverses the motion of 
the rolls and carries the stack backward through the rolls. 

36 



562 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



Catting and Rolling. — After the paper has been wound 
up at the end of the drier it is trimmed and slit so as to pro- 
duce the width of web required. 

The usual form of paper cutter employed in British and 
Continental mills as well as in many of the mills of the 
United States is shown in Fig. 175, and it cuts from six to 



eight webs at one time. 



Fiff. 175. 




The webs of paper to be operated upon are shown at a ft, 
from whence they are led between the leading rolls h h 
through the feeding rolls c c, which latter are driven, by 
means of the change pulley cZ, at such a rate of speed that 
the paper is fed to the revolving knife at the precise speed 
requisite to produce the exact length of sheet required. 

The paper after passing the feeding rolls c c travels on to 
the slitting-knives e, which are circular revolving knives 
which slit the paper into the required width. 

From the slitting-knives e the web travels through the 
drawing rolls f f to the revolving knive g, which, pressing 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



563 



down with sufficient sheering force against the dead knive g\ 
cuts the web of paper crosswise into the required length of 
sheet. 

The dimensions of the sheet of paper may be increased or 
diminished by changing the diameter of the expanding 
pulley 7i and the change pulley d. 

After being cut, the sheets of paper fall upon the endless 
felt i and are carried forward to the table h^ where they are 
arranged by boys or girls. 

Cutting Water-Marhed Paper. — In machines for cutting 
water-marked paper a greater degree of nicety in the adjust- 
ment is necessary than in the revolving cutters. 

A form of single sheet paper-cutter adapted for cutting 
water-marked paper is shown in Fig. 176. 

Fisr. 176. 




The paper after passing through the slitting-knives A^ 
which are similar to those of the revolving cutter shown in 



564 • THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Fig. 175, it passes over the measuring drum (7, which by a 
crank arrangement, D E, has imparted to it an oscillatory 
movement and can be adjusted to draw the exact quantity 
of paper forward for the length of sheet required. 

The paper is made to adhere to the drum by means of 
the gripper rolls F F, arranged so as to rise and fall as the 
drum oscillates, while the dancing roll B keeps the web at a 
uniform tension. By means of the knife /, the paper is cut 
into sheets; this knife is connected with cranks and links, G, 
and is supported by the link rods H H working horizontally 
with a swinging motion against the dead knife K. At the 
same time clamp L holds the web in position. The sheets 
to be cut may be seen hanging down at the dotted lines M. 
The sheets are then arranged by boys or girls in the usual 
way. 

On account of the great amount of attention which this 
cutter requires it is only employed when extreme accuracy 
is necessary. 

The question is often asked, "What style of cutter is best 
adapted to cut the paper into sheets directly off the machine 1" 
In reply we probably cannot do better than to quote the 
answer to the above question which was made by the ' Paper 
Trade Journal' as follows: — 

" Either a good dog cutter or a continuous feed cone- 
pulley cutter will cut, in good condition, say 6000 pounds of 
paper per day of twenty-four hours. If the production is 
greater, the cutter ought to be separate from the machine 
and the paper should be run on rolls and then carried to the 
cutter, and the paper from six to eight rolls should be cut 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 5^5 

off at one time. When the machine is speeded to makfe 
four to seven tons of paper per day, the machine tender has 
not time to attend to the cutter, and, in fact, there is no 
cutter made* that will do the work as it ought to be done, at 
the speed necessary. The best cutters will make from 
twenty to twenty-four cuts per minute if they are kept in the 
best possible condition, and this is as fast as girls can sort 
and lay the paper properly. It is, therefore, better to put in 
two cutting machines and run them slow enough to secure 
good work and to cut all of the paper in daytime. If the 
paper is made up into large rolls, a sufficient quantity is run 
on a large reel, which is then removed from the machine 
and an empty one substituted, and while it is being filled the 
one just removed is run through the winder, which trims the 
edges, cuts the paper in proper width, and winds it up on 
wooden rolls or spools. The winder is simply the cutting 
machine divested of the cross-cut knife and all superfluous 
rolls. One or two shafts, as the case may be, are added 
with suitable framework; the spools are put on these shafts 
and held in place by collars and set screws; the. shafts are 
driven by friction motion of the same power that drives the 
reel on the machine. The spools must be of exactly the 
same diameter, since, if they are not, the paper will wind 
loose and uneven on the smaller, while that being wound on 
the larger, having all the strain to bear, will be likely to 
break, and even when the spools are on different shafts, and 
each is driven by its own friction belt, it is difficult to make 
the rolls uniform. For the purpose of overcoming this 
difficulty Messrs. J. and W. Jolly, of Holyoke, have built a 



566 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

driver, consisting of a combination of pulleys and bevel gears 
which permit the use of spools of different diameters, and it 
is likely to prove the best means yet devised for driving the 
winder. Inasmuch as many of these rolls are made large 
and heavy, it is necessary that they should be wound solidly 
in order that they shall be able to withstand the inevitable 
rough handling which they receive in transportation from 
the mill to the printing house, and the rewinding they are 
subjected to for the purpose of wetting down previous to 
being printed." 

Defects in Apparatus in common use for Winding tlie 
Old Web of Paper into Rolls. — In apparatus for winding the 
cut web of paper into rolls there has been a great draw- 
back, in the form of the impossibility of equalizing the speed 
of the several rolls in such a manner that rolls of different 
diameters can be revolved at different speeds corresponding 
to their respective diameters and still be driven from the 
same main shaft, so that the paper after it is cut into strips 
may be wound evenly upon all the rolls regardless of their 
diameters. If this drawback could be overcome there would 
be accomplished a great saving in the manufacture of paper, 
inasmuch as in machinery heretofore used it has been neces- 
sary to remove as much good paper from the other rolls as 
damaged paper from one roll in case the paper on one roll 
should be damaged by some accident or other. It is also 
desirable that a new roll may be started while the paper is 
still being wound upon the other rolls. 

Manning''s Machine. — By the use of the apparatus illus- 
trated in Fig. 177 the inventor, Mr. John J. Manning, of 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 



567 



Great Banington, Mass., claims that all the objections which 
have been named are overcome, and, in short, that the 
several rolls and their shafts may be revolved at a speed cor- 
responding t6 their diameter, and that the result is performed 
automatically. 

Fin;. 177. 




Fig. 177 is a side elevation of as much of a paper-making 
machine as is necessary to illustrate Mr. Manning's improve- 
ment. 

A indicates the roll of paper, which is to be cut in suit- 
able widths to be wound upon the rolls, and the web passes 
from the roll A under a roller or cylinder, B, then upward 
over a small roller, C, between the revolving shears or cutters 
i>, which cut the web into suitable widths, and between two 
rollers or cylinders, E and F, from which rollers the several 
webs or strips of paper pass down to their respective rolls, 
which are wound each upon a shaft, G, journaled transversely 
in bearings in the frame of the machine, the bearings being 
of such a construction that the shafts may be lifted out of 
their bearings. The shafts, of which there are as many as 
there are rolls to be wound and webs of paper cut, have 



568 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

small pinions secured upon them inside of the bearings, 
which pinions mesh with pinions secured upon the ends of 
shafts which are provided with pulleys, K^ or similar gears, 
such as cog-wheels. 

In the illustration the gears /Care shown as pulleys hav- 
ing belts passing over them, and we shall refer to the gears 
as pulleys in this description. Belts, X, pass over the pulleys, 
and each pair of belts of adjoining pulleys pass over two 
pulley-rims, M. forming parts of Manning's improved equali- 
zing-pulley. Both of these equalizing pulleys, N^ with their 
two rims, are placed upon shafts, 0, which have common 
pulleys or gears, over which pass belts, which again pass 
over the two rims of an equalizing-pulley, R, upon the drive 
or power shaft S. 

In the illustration there are shown four rolls, and conse- 
quently four shafts, and therefore two equalizing-pulleys, 
iV, are shown, and one equalizing-pulley upon the drive- 
shaft, and it follows that if more than four shafts are used 
the number of equalizing-pulleys, iV, is increased at the rate 
of one pulley for each pair of shafts and belts, and the 
number of equalizing-pulleys, JS, is increased at the rate of 
one for each pair or less of equalizing-pulleys, iV, each of 
which pairs of equalizing-pulleys are again provided with 
suitable belting, which passes to another equalizing-pulley, 
the pulleys having separate shafts and belt-pulleys, the 
number of equalizing-pulleys decreasing gradually by divi- 
sion with two in the number of pulleys until one equalizing- 
pulley is reached, which is placed upon the drive-shaft. It 
follows that if an uneven number of rolls and shafts is used. 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 569 

one of the pulleys, N, will only have one belt passing over it 
and will have the two rims revolving together, the manner 
of connecting the rims being described hereafter. If only 
two shafts and rolls are used, one equalizing-pulley only is 
used. 

In this manner it will be seen that these pulleys serve as 
equalizers for the several shafts revolving in concert, auto- 
matically regulating the speed according to the tension upon 
the several pulleys. It follows that, although these pulleys 
are especially adapted to and intended for paper-cutting 
apparatus for paper-making machinery, the pulleys may be 
used in any other machinery, in which it is desirable to 
automatically regulate the speed of pulleys or cog-wheels 
according to the tension upon them. By using these pul- 
leys any damaged part of the web winding upon one roll 
may be removed, and the roll started again without the 
necessity of removing any paper from the other rolls so as to 
equalize their thickness and consequently their speed of 
revolution, or a roll may be removed and a new roll started 
while the other rolls continue to wind the paper upon the 
large rolls already formed. 

Dangoise's Machine. — There has of late years been invented 
a large number of machines for trimming, slitting, and roll- 
ing paper. Dangoise's machine, which the writer has seen 
in practical operation in Belgium, is an ingenious contrivance 
for trimming, slitting, and rolling paper, and we illustrate 
the machine in Figs. 178 and 179. 

Fig. 178 is a side elevation of the machine and Fig. 179 
a front view. 



570 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



To bearings on the opposite side frames of the machine 
are adapted the journals of a drum, H^ which is driven, 
through the medium of suitable gear-wheels, from the 
driving-shaft, carrying the smoothing-roller G. On the 



Fig. 178. 



Fiff. 179. 




•drum H rests the roller E on to which the continuous sheets 
of paper, after they are cut are wound, the journals of this 
roller being adapted to bearings arranged in guides P in the 
opposite side frames of the machine. To these guides are 
also adapted plates, which form bearings for three rollers, D, 
G, and F, the two former being arranged to rest on the rolls 
of paper, which are wound on the roller E^ while the roller 
F carries a series of circular cutting knives, Fig. 179, 
arranged at points corresponding with the width of paper 



MAKING AND FINISHING. 571 

desired to be cut. The edges of these knives are adapted to 
corresponding grooves in the roller D, and on the roller G 
are arranged 9, series of blades, corresponding in position to 
the knives on the roller F, for a purpose explained hereafter. 

The cutter-roll i^is driven from a vertical shaft, J/, through 
bevel-wheels, o o, receiving motion from the driving-shaft 
through suitable gearing. 

The front plates, iV, of the guides Pare removable, so that 
the roll E may be withdrawn when it is desired to remove 
the rolls of paper from the roller E. 

The plates which form the bearings for the rollers F D G 
have secured to them vertical racks, K X, controlled by pin- 
ions on a horizontal shaft, tT, furnished with retaining-pawls 
and ratchets, so that the rollers may be raised to any desired 
height after the required amount of paper has been wound 
on the roller E. 

The roll A of paper to be cut is arranged on the lower 
part of the frame, as is shown in Fig. 178, and immediately 
above this roll is the stretcher or tension device X, so secured 
to the opposite side frames that it can be adjusted to different 
angles to vary the tension. This stretcher carries two bars, 
^ and B\ the paper from the roll A first passing over the 
bar B and under the bar B\ and thence over the roll C, 
which, being caused to rotate in a direction opposite to that 
pursued by the paper, smooths the paper and removes all 
creases therefrom. The paper then passes over the roller D 
and between the latter and the cutter-roll F^ by which the 
paper is cut into a number of strips of the required width, 
these strips being wound by means of the drum H on to 



572 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

metal or wooden bobbins arranged on the roller E. The 
rollers D G, resting on the rolls of paper as they are wound 
on to the bobbins, give the required tension and pressure to 
the paper, while the rings or blades Q on the roller G, 
entering between the strips of paper as they are wound into 
rolls, guide the strips and insure the formation of even 
and compact rolls. 

If desired, the cutting-knives on the roll F, except those 
at the ends for trimming the edges of the paper, may be 
dispensed with, in which case the blades Q on the roller G 
are so constructed as to cut the paper to the proper widths 
as it is wound on to the roller U, these blades thus serving 
the purpose of both cutting and guiding the paper. 

Finishing Paper. 

After being cut, and, if necessary, calendered, the paper is 
sorted, or, in other words, it is examined sheet by sheet, and 
all soiled or torn sheets are thrown out. It is next counted 
into quires and reams, each quire containing twenty-four 
sheets, and each ream twenty quires. 

The appearance, and consequently the market value, of 
the paper when finished depends very greatly upon those 
who have charge of this department. 

Carelessness of any kind in handling and finishing the 
paper should not be tolerated. In putting up the sheets 
into quires, half-reams, and reams, it should always be re- 
membered that buyers pay a great deal for " fancy" in this 
world. A neat and attractive package of stationery will 
catch the eye of a purchaser much more quickly than one 



LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 573 

that is not so iiiAdtingly finished, and although the material 
in the latter is identically the same as in the former package, 
the attractively, finished paper will be the more valuable for 
the reason that it commands a quicker sale. American 
paper-manufacturers usually appreciate this point, but British 
manufacturers, as a rule, seem to pay little attention to it. 

When the paper is sent out in web too much care cannot 
be given to tightly reeling it and keeping the edges even, 
thus imparting to it a neat and finished appearance, which 
makes it more desirable and salable, as there results economy 
in both the printing and in the cutting. 



List of Patents relating to Paper-mahing Machines, issued hy the Govern- 
ment of the United States of America, from 179B to 1885 inclusive. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 




Jan. 23, 1833. 


W. Cole. 




Feb. 20, 1836. 


C. Forbes. 


1,059 


Dec. 31, 1838. 


J. M. HoUingsworth. 


1,336 


Sept. 25, 1839. 


W. and A. L, Knight and E. F. Condit. 


5,041 


March 27, 1847. 


L. W. Wright. 


5,671 


July 18, 1848. 


G. L. Wright. 


6,337 


April 7, 1849. 


J. M. HoUingsworth. 


8,698 


Jan. 27, 1852. 


G. W. Turner. 


10,519 


Feb. 14, 1854. 


S. G. Levis. 


12,027) 
12,028) 


Dec. 5, 1854. 


0. Marland. 






13,913 


Dec. 11, 1855. 


C. D. Jones. 


14,621 


April 8, 1856. 


P. H. Wait. 


15,852 


Oct. 7, 1856. 


J. Kinsey. 


16,430 


Jan. 20, 1857. 


J. S. Blake. 


17,663 


June 30, 1857. 


E. M. Bingham. 


17,817 


Aug. 4, 1857. 


P. Clark. 


19,045 


Jan. 5, 1858. 


S. Rossman. 


21,008 


July 27, 1858- 


F. Lindsay and W. Geddes. 


21,768 


Oct. 12, 1858. 


J. and R. McMurray. 


26,387 


Oct. 12, 1858. 


T. Vandeventer. 


31,215 


Jan. 22, 1861. 


G. J. Wheeler, G. N. Dunnell, and 
W. Sharp. 



574 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 
34,633 


Date. 
March 11, 1862. 


Inventor. 
J. Harper. 


38,684 
38,698 
39,500 
41,102 


May 26, 1863. 
May 26, 1863. 
Aug. 11, 1863. 
Jan. 5, 1864. 


J. F. Jones. 
G. E. Ptutledge. 
J. L. Seaverns. 
G. E. Sellers. 


42,854 
42,896 


May 24, 1864. 
May 24, 1864. 


R. L. Howe. 

J. B. AVortendyke. 


Reissues 
1,817 


May 24, 1864. 


Ij. B. Wortendykc. 


1,818 
43,280 
43,860 
44,059 
45,149 


June 28, 1864. 
Aug. 16, 1864. 
Sept. 6, 1864. 
Nov. 22, 1864. 


] 
F. Baker. 

S. Nowlan. 
A. Anderson. 
E. N. Foote. 


46,405 
48,347 
50,323 


Feb. 14, 1865. 
June 20, 1865. 
Oct. 10, 1865. 


J. P. Tice. 
J. Shanlan. 
S. W. Baker. 


51,293 


Dec. 5, 1865. 


PI. Chapman. 


53,991 
58,051 
59,661 


April 17, 1866. 
Sept. 18, 1866. 
Nov. 13, 1866. 


C. Lang. 

E. B. Bingham. 

S. G. and G. S. Rogers. 


62,958 
63,939 


March 19, 1867. 
April 16, 1867. 


R. L. Howe. 
E. 0. Potter. 


70,534 
71,108 


Nov. 5, 1867. 
Nov. 19, 1867. 


E. Curtis. 
E. AVilmot. 


72,564 
79,659 
82,854 
83,165 


Dec. 24, 1867. 
July 7, 1868. 
Oct. 6, 1868. 
Oct. 20, 1868. 


F. Thing. 
J. Jennings. 
A. B. Lowell. 
A. Howland. 


83,616) 
83,617 ] 
84,235 
85,157 
88,035 


Nov. 3, 1868. 

Nov. 17, 1868. 
Dec. 22, 1868. 
March 23, 1869. 


E. T. Ford. 

J. Viney. 
J. Wrinkle. 
S. Gwynn. 


89,132 
89,766 


April 20, 1869. 
May 4, 1869. 


A. T. Dennison. 
C. Hofmann. 


90,711 


June 1, 1869. 


J. W. White. 


90,898 


June 1, 1869. 


C. B. Van Walkenburgh, 


91,842 


June 29, 1869. 


R. C. Harris. 


92,161 
92,303 
92,596 


July 6, 1869. 
July 6, 1869. 
July 15, 1869. 


W. Campbell. 
G. F. Goetzle. 
E. F. Ford. 


95,153 


Sept. 21, 1869. 


J. P. Sherwood. 



LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 575 



No. Date. Inventor. 

100,755 March 15, 1870. W. W. Harding. 

101,345 March 29, 1870. G. S. Barton. 

102,265 April 26, 1870. I. Hoffman. 

102,754 May 10, 1870. W. H. Beasdale. 

104,281 June 14, 1870. L. Dodge. 

106,134 Aug. 9, 1870. L. Dean. 

106,179 Aug. 9, 1870. C. P. Leavitt. 

109,552 Nov. 22, 1870. P. Scanlan, 

111,081 Jan. 17, 1871. C. A. Pease. 

111,496 Jan. 31, 1871. M. and A. Waissnix and C. A. Shecker. 

111,751 Feb. 14, 1871. R. A. Kelly. 

112,422 March 7, 1871. D. Crosby. 

118,624 Aug. 29, 1871. C. McBurney and L. Hollingsworth. 

123,578 Feb. 13, 1872. James F. Marshall. 

124,881 March 26, 1872. J. Burns and J. Campbell. 

127,463 June 4, 1872. L. M. Crane. 

128,469 July 2, 1872. F. Curtis. 

131,103 Sept. 3, 1872. M. J. Kearney. 

131,732 Oct. 1, 1872. C. J. Bradbury. 

134,810 Jan. 14, 1873. M. Lawler. 

138,173 April 22, 1873. AV. McLaughlin. 

140,418 July 1, 1873. R. Hutton. 

141,358 July 29, 1873. N. Keely. 

144,172 Sept. 11, 1873. C. Whealan. 

143,801 Oct. 21, 1873. J. Whitehead. 

144,902 Nov. 25, 1873. D. Harael. 

146,520 Nov. 25, 1873. B. F. Field. 

149,381 April 7, 1874. G. Dunn and R. McAlpine. 

150,545 May 5, 1874. L. A. Duckett. 

152,216 June 23, 1874. C. W. Cronk. 

153,277 July 21, 1874, B. G. Read. 

155,027 Sept. 15, 1874. R. Hutton. 

158,204 Dec. 29, 1874. B. F. Eaton. 

158,400 Jan. 5, 1875. J. Butler. 

160,175 Feb. 23, 1875. J. L. Firm. 

164,468 Dec. 1, 1874.. R. McMurray. 

164,814 June 22, 1875. C. L. Crum. 

166,122 July 27, 1875. M. Matthews. 

167,574 Sept. 7, 1875. S. Sellers. 

168,746 Oct. 11, 1875. J. AV. Huested. 

174,369 March 7, 1876. A. W. Keeney. 

175,724 April 4, 1876. A. McDermid. 

176,344 April 18, 1876. C. O. Perrine. 



576 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 


Date. 


Inventor. 


179,161 
181,921 
183,112 


Junp 27, 1876. 
Sept. 5, 1876. 
Oct. 10, 1876. 


W. Conquest. 
J. H. DeWitt. 
C. T. Bischoff. 


185,536 
194,582 
195,698 
195,821 


Dec. 19, 1876. 
Aug. 28, 1877. 
Oct. 2, 1877. 
Oct. 2, 1877. 


G. Howland. 

L. Cole. 

W. Buchanan and C. Smith. 

P. W. Hudson. 


,196,542 
196,634 


Oct. 30, 1877. 
Oct. 30, 1877. 


D. Scrymgeour. 
M. H. Cornell. 


197,004 

197,502 


Nov. 13, 1877. 
Nov. 27, 1877. 


J. Bacon. 

J. A. Turner and J. T. Stoneham, 


199,359 


Jan. 22, 1878. 


J. Dunbar. 


200,209 


Feb. 12, 1878. 


G. W. Lewthwaite. 


200,309 


Feb. 12, 1878. 


G. F. Jones. 


200,337 
200,367 


Feb. 12, 1878. 
Feb. 12, 1878. 


F. Phillips. 
J. A. White. 


200,369 


Feb. 12, 1878. 


C. Young. 


201,757 


March 26, 1878. 


J. W. Dixon. 


206,106 1 
206,107) 
207,287 


July 16, 1878. 
Aug. 20, 1878. 


J. Hatch. 

F. A. B. Koons. 


208,792 
209,003 


Oct. 8, 1878. 
Oct. 15, 1878. 


H. Burgess. 
C. Young. 


210,097 
211,991 


Nov. 19, 1878. 
Feb. 4, 1879. 


0. W. Clark. 
J. 0. Gregg. 


211,362 


Feb. 18, 1879. 


G. Dunn and F. HoUister. 


212,485 


Feb. 18, 1879. 


J. W. Moose. 


215,422 


May 13, 1879. 


G. AVilson and A. Raymond. 


215,946 
216,696 


May 27, 1879. 
June 17, 1879. 


J. T. F. McDonald. ' 
J. Peaslee. 


216,914 
218,003 
222,353 


June 24, 1879. 
July 29, 1879. 
Dec. 9, 1879. 


W. S. Tyler. 
J. Dunbar. 
E. B. Hayden. 


223,918 


Jan. 27, 1880. 


N. Kaiser. 


Reissue 






10,074 
223,381 
225,141 


April 4, 1882. 
Jan. 6, 1880. 
March 2, 1880. 


W. C. Phelps. 

J. Jordan and C. C. Markle. 


225,609 
226,609 
229,636 
230,029 


March 16, 1880. 
April 20, 1880. 
July 6, 1880. 
July 13, 1880. 


J. Jamison. 
, H. Hay ward. 
S. Pusey. 
A. McDermid. 


231,038 


Aug. 10, 1880. 


J. J. Harris. 



LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 



577 



No. 
231,169 
231,579 
232,031 
237,021 
237,047 
239,275 
241,522 
242,815 
246,799 
247,844 
248,001 
249,992 
252,050 
255,867 
256,047 
258,710 
258,937 
259,391 
260,172 
260,356 
260,988 
263,012 
266,307 
267,704 
268,276 
270,718 
274,483 
275,056 
276,127 
280,123 
280,555 
280,564 
281,034 
282,096 
284,273 
285,838 
285,954 
286,587 
288,152 
289,675 
291,406 
293,471 
293,785 
37 



Date. 
Aug. 17, 1880. 
Aug. 24, 1880. 
Sept. 7, 1880. 
J:in. 25, 1881. 
Jan. 25, 1881. 
March 22, 1881. 
May 17, 1881. 
June 14, 1881. 
Sept. 6, 1881. 
Oct. 4, 1881. 
Oct. 4, 1881. 
Nov. 22, 1881. 
Jan. 10, 1882. 
April 4, 1882. 
April 4, 1882. 
May 30, 1882. 
June 6, 1882. 
June 13, 1882. 
June 27, 1882. 
July 4, 1882. 
July 11, 1882. 
Aug. 22, 1882. 
Oct 24, 1882. 
•Nov. 21, 1882. 
Nov. 28, 1882. 
Jan. 16, 1883. 
May 27, 1883. 
April 3, 1883. 
April 17, 1883. 
June 26, 1883. 
July 3, 1883. 
July 3, 1883. 
July 10, 1883. 
July 31, 1883. 
Sept. 4, 1883. 
Oct. 2, 1883. 
Oct. 2, 1883. 
Oct. 16, 1883. 
Nov. 6, 1883. 
Dec. 4, 1883. 
Jan. 1, 1884. 
Feb. 12, 1884. 
Feb. 19, 1884. 



Inventor. 
G. HoUoway. 
G. Holloway. 
J. H. Henry. 
R. Hutton. 
C. B. Rice. 
J. M. Shew. 
P. Ambjorn. 
C. W. Cronk. 
C. W. Mace. 
G. H. Moore. 

C. C. Woolworth. 
J. Randall. 

D. McKay. 
R. Hutton. 
J. Randall. 

C. M. Burnett. 
M. A. Martin. 

B. A. Hickox. 

F. Curtis. 
T. P. Barry. 
W. O. Jacobs. 
J. B. Bird. 

C. Parens. 

J. J. Manning. 
R. W. Perkins. 
J. Albey. 

G. Garceau. 

G. E. Marshall. 

C. Young. 

C. Batter. 

H. A. Barber. 

I. Bratton. 

L. Dejonge. 

J. J. Manning. 

G. R. Caldwell. 

S. Pember and S. Bird. 

T. P. Barry. 

H. F. Chase. 

M. Sembritzki. 

H. Marsden and H. Schofield. 

H. Sawyer. 

G. KafFenberger. 

W. H. and W. S. Ravenscroft. 



578 



THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 



No. 
293,870 



296 
296 
297 
297 
298 
298 
301 
801 
303 
304 
305 
305 
309 
312 
313 
316 
318 
319 
319 
319 
319 
320 
321 
323 
324 
325 
325 
329 



083 

222 

702 

7 75 

562 

634 

596 

732 

404 

091 

615 

824 

658 

314 

994 

221 

378 

567 

6 

6 

969 

372 

312 

079 

601 

165 

973 

610 



Date. 
Feb. 19, 1884. 
April 1, 1884. 
April 1, 1884. 
April 29, 1884. 
April 29, 1884. 
May 13, 1884. 
May 13, 1884. 
July 8, 1884. 
July 8, 1884. 
Aug. 12, 1884. 
Aug. 26, 1884. 
Sept. 23, 1884. 
Sept. 30, 1884. 
Dec. 23, 1884. 
Feb. 17, 1885. 
March 17, 1885. 
April 21, 1885. 
May 19, 1885. 
June 9, 1885. 



Inventor. 
J. J. Harris. 
J. V. Stenger. 

B. A. Scliubiger. 
G. E. Marshall. 
J. L. Firm. 

F. W. Bunnell. 
T. Stewart. 

R. W. Hopking. 
1). Lockwood, 

C. Smith. 
W. J. Foley. 
J. J. Manning. 

W. D. Kites and E. D. Fillio. 

J. Sinclair. 

C. Young. 

J. Crossley. 

H. A. Barber. 

W. Leishman. 

G. Dunn. 



^^ I June 9, 1885. F. C. Plume. 

16 J 



June 16, 1885. M. Fitzgibbons. 

June 16, 1885. J. F..F. MacDonnell. 

June 30, 1885. W. A. Philpott, Jr. 

July 28, 1885. J. F. Seiberling. 

Aug. 18, 1885. R. Smith. 

Aug. 25, 1885. W. A. Fletcher and W. E. Keightley. 

Sept. 8, 1885. M. J. Roach. 

Nov. 3, 1885. C. Smith. 



THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 579 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPERS. 

Asbestos or amianthus paper consists usually of two parts 
of paper pulp and one of amianthus. It is distinguished 
from ordinary paper by its color, having a yellowish tint. 
When burned in a flame it leaves a white residue, which, 
when not violently shaken, retains the form of the paper, 
and upon which the writing, provided ink containing 
sulphate of iron has been used, can be traced and deciphered 
with some trouble by the yellow marks left behind. Expe- 
riments in the manufacture of asbestos paper have been 
made in the United States, where beds of amianthus have 
been discovered and the price of the material is low. 

The asbestos used in the United States is in part mined 
here, in part imported. In this country the mineral is 
found in very many localities, but usually in pockets or 
other small deposits. In most cases of occurrence the 
amount is not sufficient to warrant the expenditure of the 
capital necessary for opening the deposits ; consequently the 
number of occurrences is far greater than that of operated 
mines. 

The following are the leading localities at which this 
mineral is obtained : the towns of Brighton, Sheffield, 
Pelham, and Winsdor, Massachusetts; Richmond County 



580 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

and elsewhere in New York; near New Brunswick, New 
Jersey ; near Media and Colerain, Pennsylvania ; in the 
western part of Maryland ; Hanover and Loudon counties, 
Virginia ; western North Carolina ; northwestern South 
Carolina ; Rabun and Fulton counties, Georgia ; Butte, 
Fresno, Los Angeles, Tulare, Mariposa, Placer, and Liyo 
counties, California. It is reported also from Dakota, 
Wyoming, Colorada, Utah, and Nevada. This list of occur- 
rences might be increased indefinitely, as the mineral is by 
no means an uncommon one. 

The annual production in 1883 and 1884 was about 1000 
short tons. The price in New York ranged from $15 to 
$40 per ton, the price varying with the quality. The 
American asbestos is usually characterized by a short fibre, 
and by being somewhat brittle and harsh. These qualities, 
while unfitting it to a greater or less extent for such uses as 
the manufacture of rope, cloth, etc., in which a long fibre is 
required, do not greatly injure it for the manufacture of paper. 

Imported asbestos comes mainly from the province of 
Quebec, Canada, and is perhaps the best for general uses. 
The better qualities of the Quebec asbestos bring $75 to $100 
per ton in New York, while the price of the poorer grades 
ranges as low as $40 per ton. For the manufacture of drop- 
curtains for theatres, etc., Italian asbestos is principally used, 
as it has a long, silky, tough fibre, well fitted for the purpose. 
This brings in New York from $100 to $250 per ton. 

A demand has lately sprung up for asbestos paper for 
insulation of electric wires. Sheathing paper is also largely 
made from asbestos. 



THE PREPARATION OF YARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 581 

Carholic acid paper is prepared with 3| ounces of carbolic 
acid to the square foot. It is used for disinfecting purposes, 
and also for pack'ing fresh meat. The process of preparing 
it is as follows : Melt at a moderate heat 5 parts of stearine, 
6 of paraffine, and 2 of carbolic acid. Apply the melted 
mixture to the paper with a brush. 

A still more effective paper, and which can be used for a 
great many purposes, is obtained by the use of a smaller 
quantity of nitric acid in place of carbolic acid, the remainder 
of the process being the same. 

Improved Cigarette Paper. — Tobacco leaves are ground 
to an impalpable powder which is sifted in a box upon a 
moistened sheet of cigarette paper. The sheet thus prepared 
is covered with another sheet and brought under a press. 
Other sheets treated in the same manner are placed upon 
these ajud the whole finally subjected to strong pressure, 
whereby the tobacco-powder is intimately united with the 
moist paper. After remaining in the press for 12 to 24 
hours the paper is removed and is ready for use. By a 
suitable mixture the color, flavor, and smell of the various 
kinds of tobacco can be successfully imitated. Paper thus 
prepared burns uniformly, never on one side only, and does 
not char. 

Colored Paper for Tywg up Bottles., etc. — The dry aniline 
colors of all shades are used. Dissolve 15 grains of aniline 
color in 1 ounce of highly rectified alcohol, dilute the solu- 
tion with 10 ounces of distilled water, and add 23 grains of 
tannin dissolved in J fluid ounce of alcohol. The object of 
the addition of tannin is to fix the color permanently upon 



582 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

the fibres of the pa]:)er, as without it the color on drying 
cotild be easily rubbed off. Now take thin white writing- 
paper, spread it upon a marble or copper plate, and apply 
the fluid by means of a sponge. Hang the paper over a cord 
to dry, and in a few days varnish it with a concentrated 
solution of sodium water-glass to 100 parts of which have 
been added 10 parts of glycerine. 

Gorh papei\ patented in America by H. Felt & Co., is 
prepared by coating one side of a thick, soft, and flexible 
paper with a preparation of 20 parts of glue, 1 of gelatine, 
and 3 of molasses, and covering it with fine particles of 
cork lightly rolled on. The material is used for packing 
glass, bottles, etc. 

Electro-chemical Telegraph Paper, Potiget-Maisonneuve^s. 
— Sufficiently sized paper is treated with a solution of 5 parts 
of ferrocyanide of potassium and 150 of salammoniac in 
100 of water. Telegrams received by means of this paper 
and Morse's apparatus, before the present system of receiv- 
ing by sound was introduced, gave very satisfactory results. 

Emery Paper. — Fig. 180 represents Edwards's patented 
apparatus used in the manufacture of emery, sand, glass, 
and similar papers, a is the beam on which the endless 
paper is rolled. In unrolling it passes over the brush- 
roller ^, which takes up the glue from the boiler h and 
applies it to the paper. The boiler containing the glue is 
constructed of copper or iron, and surrounded with a steam- 
jacket. The small rollers h and n act as distributers, both 
being turned by friction with h. As soon as the paper 
reaches the even plane from 6 to c the glue upon it is 



THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 583 

heated by steam emanating from the apparatus cZ, and a 
fine jet of the material, emery, glass, sand, etc., falls from 
e upon the surface thus heated. The powder penetrates 
deeply into the soft, sticky mass, and adheres quickly. 



Fijr. 1 




The excess falls off by the paper turning over c, and is 
collected in a box. The powder in e is heated by a steam- 
pipe. The fan / sets the paper in motion, whereby all the 
powder not adhering tightly is shaken off. A jet of steam 
striking the surface of the paper through g helps to set the 
powder more securely in the glue. 

Water-proof Emery Paper. — The paper is coated on both 
sides with pulverized emery which is made to adhere to it 
by means of a water-proof cement, so that moisture can 
have no injurious effect upon the paper. This flexible 
water-proof cement is prepared by melting 2 parts of hard, 
African copal, pouring over this, while yet hot, 3 of boiled 
linseed oil and adding one part of oil-lacquer, 1 of Venetian 
turpentine, 1 of Venetian red, J of Berlin blue, | of litharge, 
and 1 of dissolved caoutchouc. Mix these ingredients inti- 
mately, and should the compound be too thick dilute with 



584 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

some linseed-oil varnish. Then spread it uniformly upon 
paper, or a suitable cheap fabric, stretched in a frame, and 
sift finely pulverized emery, or glass, quartz sand, etc., over 
it; and, when dry, remove the excess of powder. Some- 
times both sides of the paper are covered, one side with 
coarser and the other with finer powder. 

Enamelled Writing Surfaces on Pasteboard and Paper . — 
A mixture of bleached shellac and borax dissolved in 10 per 
cent, of water and glue and vine-black rubbed to an impal- 
pable powder is used for the first coloring material. It is 
transferred to the paper to be coated by means of a felt 
roller, and distributed with a brush. The paper is then 
dried and rolled up. After this operation a second color 
consisting of vine-black, pergamentine (water-glass and gly- 
cerine) is used, the paper receiving three coats of this. It 
is then cut into suitable sizes, steamed at a temperature of 
248° F., and finally smoothed by calendering. For white 
tablets Kremnitz white is used in place of vine-black ; for 
colored, ultramarine, etc. 

Iridescent Paper. — Boil 4J ounces of coarsely powdered 
gall-nuts, 2,f ounces of sulphate of iron, J ounce of sulphate 
of indigo, and 12 grains of gum- Arabic; strain through a 
cloth, brush the paper with the liquor, and expose it quickly 
to ammoniacal vapors. 

Imitation of Motlier-of- Pearl on Paper. — Stout paper 
with a glossy coating is allowed to float upon a solution of 
salts of silver, lead, or bismuth. As soon as the paper lies 
smooth upon the surface of the solution it is slowly lifted 
and allowed to dry. The dry paper is then placed in a room 



THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 585 

impregnated with sulphide of hydrogen, and remains here 
until the surface has assumed a metallic lustre. Diluted 
collodion is now poured over the paper thus prepared, or it 
is drawn through a bath of it, when, after drying, the beau- 
tiful iridescent colors will appear upon the paper. The 
most A-arying effects can be produced by sprinkling reducing 
substances or salts upon the surface of the paper before sub- 
mitting it to the action of the sulphide of hydrogen. 

This process is not only adapted for paper but can also be 
employed for finished articles, as boxes, bonbonnieres, etc. 

Leather Waste — Hoid Prepared for Use in tlie Manufac- 
ture of Paper. — To extract the tannin place the waste for a 
few hours in a solution of 5 parts of lime, 5 of crystallized 
soda, and IJ of salammoniac in 100 of water; then wash 
first with acidulated and next with pure water. The pre- 
pared waste is worked into paper in the ordinary manner, 
either by itself or mixed with rags. 

PJioto-lithograpliic Transfer Paper., and Transfer-color 
heJonging to it. — Paper is treated with a solution of 100 
parts of gelatine and 1 of chrome-alum in 2400 of water, 
and, after drying, with white of e^g. It is sensitized in a 
bath consisting of 1 part of chrome alum, 14 of water, and 4 
of alcohol. The addition of the latter prevents the solution 
of the white of egg. On the places not exposed to the light 
the white of egg becomes detached, together with the color 
with which the exposed paper has been coated. The transfer 
color consists of 20 parts of printing ink, 50 of wax, 40 of 
tallow, 35 of resin, 210 of oil of turpentine, and 30 of Berlin 
blue. 



586 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

Preserving Papers. — Two new varieties of preserving 
papers have been recently brought into the market. The 
one is obtained by immersing soft paper in a bath of salicylic 
acid, and then drying in the air. The bath is prepared by 
diluting a strong solution of the acid in alcohol with a large 
volume of water. This paper may then be used for wrap- 
ping up apples, etc. 

The other paper used as protection against moths and 
mildew is best prepared from strong Manilla paper by immers- 
ing it in the following bath: Seventy parts of tar oil, 5 of 
crude carbolic acid containing about ^ phenol, 20 of coal- 
tar at a temperature of 160° F., and 5 of refined petroleum. 
The paper is then squeezed out, and dried by passing it 
over hot rollers. 

Tar Paper. — Boil 100 pounds of tar for 3 hours, then 
dissolve in it a quantity of a glue prepared from resin and 
soap, pour 8 gallons of boiling water upon the mixture, stir 
carefully, and let the mixture boil. Then stir carefully 100 
pounds of potato flour into 60 gallons of water in a vat, mix 
the dissolved tar with 15 gallons of boiling water, and add 
this to the potato flour in the vat, stirring constantly. 
Twenty-four parts of this homogeneous fluid are taken to 
20 parts of paper-pulp. From the pulp the tar-paper is 
manufactured, which can be painted black and varnished to 
make it water-proof The prepared tar-solution may also be 
used to impregnate wood, sail-cloth, etc. 

Tracing Paper^ Tracing Linen., and Transparent PacJdng 
Paper. — The paper is first treated with boiled linseed oil, 
and the excess of oily particles removed with benzine. The 



THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 587 

paper is then washed in a chlorine bath. When dry it is 
again washed with^ oxygenated water. 

Paper can be made transparent by applying a thin coating 
of a solution of Canada balsam in turpentine to the paper, 
then give it a good coating of much thicker varnish on both 
sides. Perform the work before a hot tire, to keep the paper 
warm, and a third or even fourth coating until the paper 
becomes evenly translucent. Paper prepared in this manner 
comes nearer to perfection than any other. 

By the following A-ery simple process ordinary drawing 
paper can be rendered transparent, for the purpose of mak- 
ing tracings, and its transparency removed so as to restore 
its former appearance when the drawing is completed. 
Dissolve any quantity of castor oil in one, two, or three 
volumes of absolute alcohol, according to the thickness of 
the paper, and apply it by means of a sponge. The alcohol 
evaporates in a few minutes, and the tracing paper is dry 
and ready for immediate use. The drawing or tracing can 
be made either with lead-pencil or India ink, and the oil 
removed from the paper by immersing it in absolute alcohol, 
thus restoriug its original opacity. The alcohol employed in 
removing the oil is, of course, preserved for diluting the oil 
used in preparing the next sheet. 

Linen, to prepare it for being used for tracing purposes, 
is "first provided with a coating of starch and then with an 
application of linseed oil and benzine. It is finished by 
being smoothed between polished rollers. 

Transfer Paper. — Mix lard to a paste with lampblack, 
rub this upon the paper, remove the excess with a rag, and 



588 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 

dry the paper. A copy of the writing can be transferred on 
a clean sheet of paper by placing it underneath the pre- 
pared paper and writing upon the latter with a lead-pencil 
or sharp point. 

Water-proof paj)er, transparent and impervious to grease, 
is obtained by soaking good paper in an aqueous solution of 
shellac and borax. It resembles parchment paper in some 
respects. If the aqueous solution be colored with aniline 
colors very handsome paper, of use for artificial flowers, is 
prepared. 

Petersori's Water-proof Pai^er. — Dissolve 3| ounces of 
tallow soap in water, add sufiicient solution of alum until the 
soap is entirely decomposed, and mix this fluid with a gallon 
of paper-pulp. The paper is in all other respects prepared 
in the ordinary manner, and need not to be sized. It is 
especially suitable for cartridge-shells. 

Wrapping Paper for Silver Ware. — The appearance of 
silver ware is frequently injured by being exposed to air 
containing sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphurous and other 
acids. The small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen con- 
tained in illuminating gas and which in burning yields sul- 
phurous acid is frequently sufficient to spoil the appearance 
of all the articles in a store. To prevent this a prepared 
paper is recommended. Prepare a solution of 6 parts of 
caustic soda in water of 20° Baum^, then add 4 of zinc 
oxide and let the mixture boil for two hours, if possible 
uiider a pressure of 5 atmospheres. Dilute the solution, 
when clear, to 10° Baume, and it is ready for impregnating 
the paper. 



THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 589 

Writing, Copying, and Draicing Paper wliicli can he 
Washed. — The paper is made transparent by immersion in 
benzine and then, before the benzine volatilizes, plunged 
into a solution of siccative prepared in the following manner : 
One pound each of lead shavings and oxide of zinc are 
boiled for 8 hours, together with 8f ounces of hardened 
Venetian turpentine in 2| gallons of purified linseed-oil var- 
nish, and then allowed to stand for a few days to cool and 
settle. The clear layer is then poured off and to this are 
added 5 pounds of white West Indian copal and 8f to 10 
ounces of sandarac dissolved in spirit of wine or ether. This 
paper can be written or drawn upon with pen and ink or 
water colors ; or, by using good copying ink, good copies can 
be taken from it without a press. 



INDEX. 



A DAMSON'S method of preparing 
stock for paper-makers' sizing, 
446-448 
Aldrich, E. D., contrivance for holding 
knife for cutting rags bj hand, 1 1 7- 
120 
Alkali, quantity of, used for dissolving 

the ink from printed papers, 195 
Allen and Mason's dusting engine for 
preparing pulp from papers, 189-202 
Alum, 435-442 

aluminous cake, substitute for, 418 

as a mordant, 462 

concentrated, as a water purifier, 

440, 441 
false economy in the use of, 441, 

442 
from bauxite, 437 
"Lion," 418 
pearl, the most powerful sizing 

agent, 438 
test for iron in, 440 
Alumina bleach liquor, 353, 354 
Aluminium sulphate, 443-445 
Aluminous cake, substitute for alum, 

418 
Alums, varieties of, 435, 436 
Amianthus or asbestos paper, 579, 580 
Ammonia, treating wood with, 307, 308 
Ancient history found on clay tablets, 1 9 
Aniline and other reds, combination of, 
, in coloring paper, 476 
black, 483, 484 
colors, acid mordants for, 463 
dyes used in paper-making, 93 
gray (murine), 483 
red colors, commercial names of, 

467 
violets, 481 
Animal size, materials from which it is 

made, 421, 422 
Antichlorine, preparation of, 397, 398 
Aqua regia, treating wood with, 307 



Arsenious acid, preparation of the solu- 
tion of, 348 
Artificial fiower-paper, crimson stain for, 
486 
dark blue stain for, 486 
dark green stains for, 486 
dark red stain for, 487 
rose color stain for, 487 
scarlet stains for, 487 
yellow stains for, 486, 487 
flowers, to stain paper for, 485-487 
Asbestos, annual production of, 580 
average prices of, 580 
large use of, for sheathing paper, 

580 
leading localities at which it is ob- 
tained, 579, 580 
or amianthus paper, 579, 580 
paper for insulating electric wires, 
580 
Assyrian antiquities in the British 
Museum, 19, 20 
Mythology found on clay tablets, 
20 
Aussedat's paper-mills, 303 

process of treating wood, 299-304 
Automatic wire-guide for paper-making 
machines, 505-514 



BACHET-MACHARD'S process of 
disintegrating straw and esparto, 

306 
process of disintegrating wood, 
305-307 
Bagging, rope, and threads, classifica- 
tion of, 90 
Bankruptcy in the United States after 

the war of 1812, 54, 55 
Barley straw, treatment of, 236 
Barry's (Thos. P.), improved wire- 
guide device, illustrated, 505-514 
Bastose, a mordanted cellulose, 377 



592 



INDEX. 



BEUimiinn's machine for cutting rags, 

130-133 
Bauxite, rich In akiniina, 43 7 
Beating, 391-398 

entrine, Hoyt's, 401-405 

Wm Umpherston's, 406-408 
engines, 399-408 

usual construction of, 400-402 
process, theory of, 394 
usually timed by the thickness of 
the paper to be made, 394, 395 
Benzine and resin, tub sizing with, 434 
Bevan and Cross's treatment with chlo- 
rine gas in MuUer's processes, 80, 81 
Bisulphide processes of treating wood, 

some of the defects of, 289, 290 
Black, aniline, 483, 484 

color on paper, 483, 484 

coloring for paper used for cheap 

pocket-books, 484 
indelible, 484 

stain for Morocco paper, 489, 490 
stains for glazed papers, 487 
Bleach liquor, alumina, 353, 354 

zinc, 352, 353 
Bleaching boilers, American patents 
issued from 1790 to 1885 inclu- 
sive, 389, 390 
esparto, 377 
in rotaries, 388, 389 
in the washing and beating engine, 

disadvantages of, 315 
jute, 377-380 

Conley's process for, 240-242 
of materials composed of hemp, 

flax, etc., 380-382 
of pulp, experiments made In, 304, 

305 . 
of straw. Burns' s process for, 362, 

364 
paper pulp by applj'ing the bleach- 
ing agent in a pulverized or 
sprayed condition, 385-388 
powder, 341-346 

alteration by keeping, 343, 344 
estimation of chlorine in, 346- 

350 
Injured by too hurried a pack- 
ing, 343 
requisite attributes of, 343, 
344 
pulp made from old papers, 361 
resin and preparing size therefrom, 

420, 421 
solution, preparing and using, 350 



Bleaching — 

sour"^ 357, 358 
straw, 361-364 

vegetable tissues with permanga- 
nate of potash, and neutralizing 
with oxalic acid, sulphite of 
sodium, and chlorine, 382-385 
with chlorine gas requires longer 
time for reduction of the rags 
than when liquid chlorine Is used, 
315 
with gas, 358-360 
wood fibre, 364-367 
wood, straw, etc., 367, 376 
Blue (azure and light) stains for satin 
papers, 491 
(azure) stain for glazed papers, 

487, 488_ 
(dark and light) stains for Morocco 

papers, 490 
(dark and pale) stains for glazed 

j^apers, 488 
potassium ferrocyanlde for produc- 
ing different shades of, 463 
rags for deep blue colored paper, 

475 
shades on paper, 471-477 
stain for artificial flower paper, 486 
Blueing paper, 475 

Boiler, Marshall's, for digesting wood 
by the soda process, 254-258 
rag. Illustrated, 209 
rotary. Illustrated, 204, 205, 215- 
218 
of Geo. F. Wilson, Illustrated, 
211-214 
Boilers for digesting wood by the soda 
process, defects of, 252-254 
rag, forms of, 204 
revolving, 210-218 
stationary, 209, 210 
Boiling, alkaline substances used in, 204 
and washing rags, 185-189 
coal tar with the alkalies employed 

In treating straw, 235 
esparto, 237-239 
li(juor, not drawn off after each 

boiling, 225 
Manilla and jute, 239-242 
object of, 204 
rags, 203--208 

combined process for washing 

and, 185-191 
use of lime and soda ash in, 
206, 207 



INDEX. 



593 



Boiling rags — 

usual time of steam pressure, 
207 • 

straw, 229-237 
waste paper, 224-229 

period of, varies with the 
nature of the stock, 226 
wood, 242-258 

wood chips with soda, 246-249 
Bradford, William, aids in the intro- 
duction of the paper manufactui-e into 
the United States, 43, 44 
Bratton's (Isaac) improvements in con- 
nection with the suction-box of a 
paper-making machine, illustrated, 
514-518 
Brazaline, shades of red, employed for, 

465 
Brazil wood, to extract a strong dye 

liquor from, 466, 46 7 
Brewer's method of moistening calen- 
der rolls, 546-549 
British Museum, Assyrian antiquities 

in, 19, 20 
Brown colors, Venetian red for, 467 
(dark) stain for glazed papers, 488 
(reddish and light) stains for satin 

papers, 491 
shades on paper, 478-480, 484, 485 
Building paper, water- proof! n<)', 451, 452 
Burns's apparatus for bleaching straw, 
362, 363 
process for bleaching straw, etc., 
362-364 
for treating straw, 231-235 



CALCIC chloride solution, standard 
for testing water, 334 
Calender rolls. Brewer's method of 
moistening, 546-549 
H. J. Frink's method of pre- 
venting over-heating, 551- 
554 
leading paper through, 538- 

543" 
method for the easy removal 

and replacement, 554-557 
Newton's method of moisten- 
ing, 549-551 
Calendering, 538-561 

machines, stripping paper from, 
558-560 
Calenders, plate, 560, 561 
Carbolic acid paper, 581 
38 



Carbonate of sodium, economical re- 
generation of, 260 
Card-board and wall papers, pulp for, 

303, 304 
Carey, Mathew, & Sons, 53 
Caustic soda, quantities used in boiling 
different classes of rags, 208 
used in boiling esparto, 238 
use of, for dissolving ink from 
printed papers, 195 
Cellulose, 77-79 

American patents for lead lined 
digesters to be used in pre- 
paring, from wood, issued 
by the United States from 
1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295, 
296 
for preparing, from wood, is- 
sued from 1790 to 1885 in- 
clusive, 295 
Dahl's process of producing, from 
wood, sti-aw, and other vegetable 
matters, by boiling in a chemical 
- solution, 249-252 
determination of, 79-81 
Dr. Mitscherlich's process of pre- 
paring, from wood, 244, 245 
oxidation of, 79 

pure, necessary process to obtain, 
246 
Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria, best 
histories of, found on clay tablets, 19 
Chemical fibre, cutting wood for, 145 
wood-pulp, woods most easily used 
for, 246 
Chemically prepared wood-pulp, 242-246 
Chemicals, clays, coloring materials, 
resins, etc., employed in paper- 
making, 92 
Chenney, Pearson C, 57 
Chlorine gas, preparation of, 359, 360 
substitute for bromine water in 
Muller's processes, 80, 81 
in bleaching powder, estimation of, 

346-350 
testing for, 393, 394 
Cigarette paper, improved, 581 
boiling ropes for, 207 
Clark's (Dr.) soap test for hardness in 
water, 330-333 
table of hardness of water, 335 
Clay, early use of, for writing upon, 19 
tablets containing best histories of 
Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assy- 
ria, 19 



594 



INDEX. 



Clays employed in paper-makinfr, 92 
Coal tar, boiling, -with the alkalies em- 
ployed in treating straw, 235 
Coburn's machine for cutting rags, etc., 
or materials containing metallic and 
other substances, 133-139 
Cochineal, shades of red employed for, 

465 
Colored paper for tying up bottles, 581, 
582 
papers, dry aniline colors of all 

shades used, 581 
rags, treatment of, 219-224 

treatment of, in boiling, 206, 
207 
Coloring, 457-493 

materials employed in paper-mak- 
ing, 92, 93 
surface, 485 
Colors, binary, 458, 461 
primary, 458, 461 
for paper, 459 
the, 458-462 

vegetable, instability of, 485 
Concentrated alum as a water purifier, 

440, 441 
Congress, use of imported paper by, 

54, 55 
Conley's process for boiling and bleach- 
ing jute, 240-242 
Connecticut, fii'st paper-mill in, 46 
Coon's process of re pulping paper-stock, 

320-322 
Copying paper, boiling ropes for, 207 
cigarette, and tissue paper, boiling 

ropes for, 207 
writing, and drawing paper which 
can be washed, 589 
'Cork-paper, 582 
Corn-husk cutter, 171-174 
<Corn leaves and stalks, treatment of, 

236 

Cotton and linen fibres, eflfect of a cold 

solution of potash on, 82 

effects of oil upon, 82 

to distinguish between, 81 

fibre, effect of a boiling solution of 

caustic potash on, 82 
filaments, microscopic appearance 
of, 81, 82 
of, appearance of, under the 
microscope, 81, 82 
in linen, how to destroy, 108 
piiper, some of the earliest dated 
examples of its use, 28 



Cotton paper — 

statutes written upon, by the 
Empress Irene, at the close 
of the eleventh century, 29 
use of, by the Arabs in the 
ninth and tenth centuries, 28 
various titles applied to, in the 
middle ages, 28 
Coxe, Tench, 50 
Cram's (Madison H.) entering guide, 

543-546 
Crimson stain for artificial flower paper, 

486 
Cushnian's machine for disintegrating 

fibres of wood, 146, 14 7 
Cut rags, machine for reducing the loss 

in cleaning, 179-184 
Cutter, corn husk, 171-174 
Cutters, straw, 144 
Cutting and rolling, 562, 563 

and winding paper. Manning's ma- 
chine for, 566-569 
rags by hand, 117-121 

by machinery, 121-144 
water-marked paper, 563-566 
wood for chemical fibre, 145 
Cylinder machines of American inven- 
tion, early, 56 
rolls, stack of, 555-557 
Cylinders, drying, 532-537 



DAHL'S process of producing cellu- 
lose from wood, straw, esparto, or 
other vegetable matter, by boiling 
them underpressure in a hydrated 
solution containing sulphate of 
soda, carbonate of soda, soda hy- 
drate, and sodium sulphide, 

. 249-252 
Dandy roll for paper-making macliines, 

518-520 
Dangoise's machine for trimming, slit- 
ting, and rolling paper, 569-572 
Demeur's (Auguste) process of bleach- 
ing applicable to materials composed 
of hemp, flax, or other products 
containing stalks, straw, etc., 380- 
382 
Demotic, hieroglyphic, and hieratic 

papyri, 21-23^ 
Dickinson (John), description of his 
paper-making machine, invented in 
1809, 51 
Didot (M. Leger), 47 



INDEX. 



595 



Digesters for paper pulp, American 
patents issued for, from 1790 to 
1885 inclusive, 296-29*9 
lead-lined, used in preparing cellu- 
lose from wood, American patents 
issued for, from 1790 to 1885 in- 
clusive, 295, 296 
Disinfecting rags, 99-106 

Parker and Blackman's inven- 
tion for, 100-104 
Disinfection by use of sulphurous acid, :99 
Documents undated, fixing approximate 
periods of, by means of the papers, 40 
Donkin, Bryan, 48 
Drainers, proper construction of, 354- 

357 
Draining, 354-357 
Drawing, copying, and writing paper 

which can be washed, 589 
"Dry picking" esparto, 112 
Drying cylinders, 532-537 

tub-sized paper, 427, 428 
Duster and washer, waste paper, 189-202 
Dusters, rair, list of American patents 

for, 143, "l 44 
Dusting machines, 175-202 

means for facilitating the handling 
and opening of waste papers, 
preparatory to, 197-199 
rags, 175-202 
waste from, 178, 179 
Dyes, aniline, used in paper-making, 93 
Dyestuffs capable of producing red 
colors and shades, 464-469 
for coloring papers, 463, 464 



EDWARDS'S apparatus for making 
emery, sand, glass, and similar pa- 
pers, 582,583 
Egyptian papyri in the British Muse- 
um, 21 
sizes of, 23 
Electro-chemical telegraph paper, 582 
Emery paper, 582, 583 

Edwards's apparatus for mak- 
ing, 582, 583 
water- proof, 583, 584 
Enamelled writing surfaces on paste- 
board and paper, 584 
Engine, Hoyt's beating, 401-405 
sizing, 413-420 

Umpherston's beating, 406-408 
Engines, beating, 399-408 

usual construction of, 400-402 



Entering guide, Cram's, 543-546 
Esparto, bleaching, 37 7 

boiling, 237-239 

Dahl's and Tranche's process of 
boiling, 239 

grass, classification of, 92 

sorting, 112 

washing and poaching, 325-327 



FERRIC oxide, 467 
Fessy's (Jean B.) process of eco- 
nomical bleaching, illustrated, 
385-388 
Fibre, hemp, description of, 83 

jute, microscopic appearance of, 83, 

linen or flax, microscopic appear- 
ance of, 82 
Fibres, cotton and linen, effects of a 
boiling solution of caus- 
tic potash on, 82 
to distinguish between, 81 
linen and cotton, effects of a cold 

solution of potash on, 82 
various, classification of, 91 
vegetable, differentiating of, 81-84 
recognition of, 81-84 
Filaments of cotton, as they appear un- 
der the microscope, 81, 82 
Finishing and making paper, 495-578 
Flax fibre, effects of a boiling solution 
of caustic soda on, 82 
microscopic appearance of, 82 
New Zealand, to distinguish from 
ordinary, 83 
Flowers, artificial, to stain paper for, 

485-487 
Fourdrinier, Henry and Sealy, pur- 
chased, in 1804, the interest of 
Didot and Gamble in the Robert 
machine, 48 
machine illustrated, 310-314, 495 
how the machine invented by 
Robert, and perfected by 
Gamble, Didot, and Don- 
kin, came to be called the, 
49 
Francke's process of manufacturing pa- 
per pulp from wood, esparto, straw, 
etc., 274-288 
Frink's (H. J.) method of preventing 
overheating of the calender rolls, 551- 
554 
Furfurol, from jute, 378 



596 



INDEX. 



GAMBLE, John, 47 
Gas, bleacliing with, 358-SGO 

chlorine, preparation of, 359, 
360 
Gilpin, Thomas, 52-54 
Glazed papers, black stains for, 487 
blue stains for, 487, 488 
brown stains for, 488 
green stains for, 488 
lemon color stains for, 488, 

489 
orange-yellow stain for, 489 
red stains for, 489 
rose color stains for, 489 
stains for, 487-489 
violet stainfor, 489 
Glue stock, preservation of, by tanners 
and tawers, 423, 424 
treatment of, at the paper- 
mill, 424 
■washer, patented by W. A. 
Hoevcler, 424-427 
Graham's method of treating wood and 
other fibrous substances for the pro- 
duction of fibre for paper- making, 
etc., by the injection of sulphurous 
acid, either alone or in combination 
with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or 
other suitable base in the form of a 
solution containing an excess of acid, 
into a closed or open vessel or digester 
during the operation of boiling, 260- 
263 
Gray, aniline, 483 

(bluish) stain for satin papers, 492 
(light) stain for satin papers, 491- 

492 
shades on paper, 482, 483 
Gray's (Thomas) patented method of 

preparing resin in size, 420, 421 
Green (brownish and light) stains for 
satin paper, 492 
(copper and pale) stains for glazed 

papers, 488 
(dark and pale) stains for Morocco 

papers, 490 
shades on paper, 477, 478 
stain for artificial flower paper, 486 
vitriol, use as a mordant, 462 
Grinders, wood, American jjatents for, 

106-170 
Grinding, treating wood before, 145- 

147 
Guide, Cram's entering, 543-546 
Gutta-percha fibres, classification of, 91 



HAND-MADE paper, manufacture 
of, 94-98 
Hardness of water, Clark's tables of, 

335 
Hard-sizing of paper, Karcheski's me- 
thod of, 428-431 
paper in process of manufac- 
ture by administering vege- 
table and animal sizes suc- 
cessively to the web before 
it is dried upon the heated 
cylinders, 428-433 
water, Dr. Clark's soap-test for, 
330 
Hart and Walker's machine for reduc- 
ing the loss in cleaning cut rags, 179- 
18'4 
Hemp fibre, description of, 83 
Hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic 

papyri, 21-23 
Hoeveler's (W. A.) patent glue stock 

washer, 424-427 
Hoffman's violet, 481 
Hogben's (James) process of coloring 
paper in the course of manufacture, 
476 
" Hollander," rag engine, 809 
Houghton's process for preparing wood 

pulp, 242 
Hover's composition for treating paper, 

435 
HoAv's (Warren B.) method of apply- 
ing parafline to paper, 452-455 
Hoyt's beating engine, 401-405 
Hydrocellulose, 78 

Hydrochloric or azotic acids, for remo- 
val of incrustating matter from the 
pulp, 304 
Hypernic, composition and use of, 46G 
Hypochlorite baths, requisite strength 

of, 304 
Hyposulphite of sodium, so-called anti- 
chlorine, use of, 397 



TINOTATION of mother-of-pearl on 
1 paper, 584, 585 

Imperfections, common process of treat- 
ing, 226, 227 
J. T. Ryan's process of making 
first-class clean paper therefrom, 
227, 228 
washing, 316-323 
what they consist of, 317 
Indelible black, 484 



INDEX. 



597 



India-rubber fibres, classification of, 91 

Ink, solvents used for removing from 
printed papers, 195 

Inks, printing and writing, to extract 
from waste paper, 224 

Insulation for electric wires, asbestos 
paper for, 580 

Iodide of potassium-starch paper, pre- 
paration of, 348 

Iridescent paper, 584 

Iron, test of, in alum, 440 

detection of, in water, 331, 332 

Ivy mill, Delaware County, Pa., 44 



JAMINSON'S improvement in steam 
traps, 535-53 7 
Jolly's (J. and W.) driver for winder, 

565, 566 
Journal, hollow, 533 
Jute and Manilla, boiling, 239-242 

bleaching of, by permanganate of 
potash, 3 78, 379 
in the laborator}', 379 
Conley's process for boiling and 

bleaching, 240-242 
decomposition of, by mineral acids, 

378 
determining its presence in linen, 108 
effect of salt air and salt water 

upon, 378 
fibre, microscopic appearance of, 

83, 84 
stock, patent composition for bleach- 
ing, 379, 380 



KELLER, invention of the wood- 
pulp machine by, 57 
Keller's patent sold to Henry Voelter's 

Sons, 57 
Kercheski's apparatus for hard sizing, 
430-432 
method of hard sizing paper, 428- 
431 
Kingsland pulp engine, 399, 400 
Koechliu's (Ivan) wood crushing ma- 
chine, 302, 303 



LATENT heat of steam, 226 
Laur's patent for making paper- 
maker's alum, 437 
Leading paper through calender-rolls, 
538-543 



Lead nitrate, preparation of, and descrip- 
tion, 4G3 
sugar of, 463 
Leather, used by the Israelites as a 
writing material, 24 
waste, how prepared for the manu- 
facture of paper, 585 
Lemon color stain for glazed papers, 
488, 489" ■ 
for satin papers, 492 
Light, composition of, 458 
Lime and soda ash, use of, in rag boiling, 
206, 207 
milk of, preparation of, 207, 208 
preparation of milk of, 207 
slaked, more soluble in cold than 
in warm water, 206 
Linen and cotton fibres, effects of a 
cold solution of potash 
on, 82 
effects of oil upon, 82 
determining the pi'esence of jute in, 

108 
fibre, effect of a boiling solution of 

caustic potash on, 82 
paper, period and manner of its 

invention, 33, 34 
rags, often mixed with jute and 

"cotton, 107, 108 
to destroy cotton in, 108 
tracing, 586, 587 
Long pulp, to produce, 394 
Loring's (Harrison) rotary bleaching 
boiler, 388, 389 



MACHINE, Dangoise's, for trim- 
mins:, slitting, and rolling paper, 
569-572 
for cutting and winding paper, 566- 
569 
corn husks, 171-174 
or grinding wood and reducing 

it to puip, 148-166 
paper, 562, 563 
single sheets of paper, 563-566 
wood for chemical fibre, 145 
for disintegrating fibres of wood, 

146, 147 
for facilitating the sorting of paper 

stock, 113-116 
for purifyins: pulp, illustrated, 498, 

499 
for reducing printed papers to pulp, 
196 



598 



INDEX. 



Machine for reducing — 

the loss in cleaning cut rags, 
179-184 
for separating metallic substances 

from paper stock, 139-142 
for -washing rags, 185-189 
single cylinder, for forming thin 
papers, 537, 538 
Machines for cutting rags, 122-144 
for dusting rags, 175-202 
paper-making, list of American 
patents for, 573-578 
McKay's (David) improved dandy roll, 

illustrated, 518-520 
McLaughlin's invention of stripping 

fingers, 558-560 
Making and finishing paper, 495-578 
Manganese, soluble salt of, to prepare, 

223 
Manilla and jute, boiling, 239-242 

hemp, description of, 83 
Manning's machine for cutting and 

winding paper, 566-569 
Manufactures, American, after the adop- 
tion of the Constitution, 49 
development of, during the War of 
1812, 50 
Marshall's boiler for digesting -wood by 
the soda process, 254-258 
for treating wood for paper pulp by 
the acid or bisulphite processes, 
292-294 
George E. , invention for a stack of 

cylinder rolls, 555-557 
invention for regulating speed of 
paper-making machines, illus- 
trated, 522-532 
Mason and Allen's dusting-engine, 189- 

202 
Massachusetts, early paper-mills in, 

44-46 
Materials used for paper-making, 64-76 

in sizing paper, 435-448 
Maxfield's, Charles A., pi'ocess of ap- 
plying ozocerite to paper, 455, 456 
Mellier's process for treating straw, 

229, 230 
Metallic substances, machines for sepa- 
rating, from paper stock, 133-142 
Methods other tlian the mechanical, 
' soda, and bisulphite processes for tlie 
treatment of wood, 299-308 
Micrographic study of the manufacture 

of paper, 77 
Microscopic study of vegetable fibres, 77 



Milk of lime, preparation of, 207, 208 
Mineral pigments for yellow colors, 470 
Mitscherlich's apparatus for preparing 
cellulose, 264-274 
objections to, 245 
process of preparing cellulose from 

wood, 244, 245 
processes of preparing cellulose 
from wood, 263-274 
Moistening calender rolls, Newton's 
method, 549-551 
the calender rolls, Brewer's method, 

546-549 
the paper for calendering, 546 
Moorhouse, Robert and William, ma- 
chine for sorting paper stock, 113-116 
Mordants, commonly employed in paper 

coloring, 462 
Morocco papers, black stain for, 489 
blue stains for, 490 
green stains for, 490 
orange-yellow stain for, 490 
red stains for, 490 
stains for, 489-491 
violet stains for, 490, 491 
yellow stain for, 491 
Mother-of-pearl, imitation of, on paper, 

etc., 584, 585 
Miiller's processes for determination of 

cellulose, 79, 80 
Murine, 483 



NAPHTHALINE colors, 482 
violet, 482 
Natrona porous alum, 439 
Newspapers, old-folded, means for 

handling and opening, 197-199 
Newton's machine for washing rags, 
185-189 
method of moistening calender 
rolls, 549-551 
New Zealand flax, to distinguish from 

ordinary flax, 83 
Nitrate of lead, 463 



OAT straw, treatment of, 236 
Orange-yellow stain for glazed 
papers, 489 
for Morocco papers, 490 
stains for satin papers, 492 
O'Reilley and Wilson's appai-atus and 
process of treating colored rags, 219- 
224 



INDEX. 



599 



Overheating the calender-rolls, pre- 
venting, 551-554 ^ 
Oxycellulose, 78, 79 
Ozocerite, treating paper with, 455, 45G 



PAMPHLETS, means for facilitating 
handling and opening of, 197-199 
Paper, artificial flower, crimson stain 
for, 486 
dark blue stain for, 486 
dark red stain for, 487 
green stains for, 486 
rose-color stain for, 487 
scarlet stains for, 487 
yellow stains for, 486, 487 
asbestos or amianthus, 579, 580 
black, for cheap pocket-books, 

coloring for, 484 
building, water-proof composition 

for, 451, 452 
carbolic acid, 581 
Chinese, 25 

cigarette, boiling ropes for, 207 
colored, for tying up bottles, 581, 

582 _ 
commercial, classification of, 85, 

86_ 
copying, boiling ropes for, 207 
cotton, date of the oldest European 
document on, 29 
its use for ofiicial documents 
forbidden by the Emperor 
Frederick II., 29 
made known to the Western 
world by the Arabs in the 
eighth century, 27 
use of, by the Arabs in the 
ninth and tenth centuries, 28 
various titles applied to, in the 
middle ages, 28 
cutter, single sheet, 5G3-566 
cutting machine, 562, 563 
derivation of the woi'd, 25 
double sized, 433 
drying of tub sized, 427, 428 
earliest manufacture of, In England, 

31, 42 
electro-chemical telegraph, 582 
emery, 582, 583 

enamelled writing surfaces on, 584 
fii'st American patents for manu- 
facture of, 51 
first made from cotton pulp mixed 
with rags, 33 



Paper — 

first successfully made by ma- 
chinery at Frogmore, Eng., in 
1803, 48 
for artificial flowers, stains for, 

485-487 
foreign, used by the U. S. Con- 
gress, 54, 55 
hand manufacture of, 94-98 
historv of the manufacture of, 17- 

63 ' 
Hover's composition for treating, 

435 
how commonly made, 25 
how effected by the enforcement of 

duties on rags in 1843, 60 
imitation of mother-of-pearl on, 

584, 585 
improved cigarette, 581 
iridescent, 484 
J. T. Ryan's process of making, 

from imperfections, 227, 228 
Kercheski's method of hard sizing, 

428-431 
leading through calender rolls, 538- 

543 
linen, first made in Europe in the 

fourteenth century, 33 
machine for cutting single sheets, 

563—566 
machine for facilitating the stock, 
sorting, 113-1 16 
for trimming, slitting, and rol- 
ling, 569-572 
made from the wool of the cotton 
plant bv the Chinese, A. 1). 152, 
27 ' _ 

made from wood, difficulty experi- 
enced in its introduction, 57-59 
made in a continuous sheet by John 

Dickinson in 1809, 51 
period and manner of its invention, 
33, 34 
Paper-making, chemicals, clays, color- 
ing materials, etc., used in, 
92, 93 _ _ 
classified division of the sub- 
stances used in, 77 
in the United States, 1860 to 

1870, 61, 62 
machines, American patents 
for, 573-578 
regulating the speed of the 
various portions, 520- 
532 



600 



INDEX. 



Paper-making — 

materials, commercial classifi- 
cation, 88-93 
manufacture, American, statistics 
of, 49, 55, 56, 57, 61 
great development in the 

United States, 42, 43 
miorographic study of, 77 
of, by the Arabs, 27 
of, in Germany, 32 
of, in Italy, 32 
of, in Spain, 29, 30 
of, in the Netherlands, 31 
materials used by the Chinese 
paper-makers, 27 
for making, 64-76 
method of applying paratfine to, 

452-455 
mill first established in America, in 
1690, 42 
modern, interiorview of, show- 
ing a Fourdrinier machine,' 
495 
mills, early American, 42-46 

first establishment of, in 

France, 30 
in the different countries of the 

world, 41-43 
in the United States at the 
commencement of the Revo- 
lution, 46 
in the United States in 1810, 

49, 50 
used by Aussedat, 308 
moistening the, 546 
now in common use, facts in regard 

to its invention, 35-40 
other uses of, besides printing and 

writing upon, 25, 26 
packing it for the salesroom, 572, 

573 
Peterson* s water-proof, 588 
photograph size for, 449 
photo-lithographic transfer, with 
transfer color belonging to it, 
585 
prices of, during the War of the 

Rebellion, 61^62 
printing, sizing the surface of, 434, 

435 
produced in the United Sates in 

1820, 55 
pulp, American patents issued from 
1790 to 1885 for digesters in 
preparing, 29G-299 



Paper- making — 

bleaching of, by applying the 
bleaching agent in a pulver- 
ized or sprayed condition, 
385-388 
Francke's process of manu- 
facturing from wood, esparto, 
straw, e^tc, 274-288 
Marshall's boilers for making 
from wood by the acid or 
bisulphite processes, 292- 
294 
Pictet and Brelaz's process of 
converting wood into, 290- 
292 
rag, first mention of, 26 
rapid development of its trade in 
France in the fourteenth century, 
30 
sizing, materials used in, 435-448 

stock for, 44 6-448 
so-called rice, made from the marrow 

of the Oreiia papyri/era, 27 
stock boilers, improved strainer 
for the blow-off; 215-218 

Coon's process of repulping, 

320-322 
difficulties in repulping, 319 
Taylor' s machine for separating 
small metallic substances 
from, 139-142 
straw, size for, 449 
stripping sheets of, from off' the last 
roller of calendering machines, 
558-560 
tar, 586 
tariff" on, 54 
to make, entirely from waste pajier, 

226-228 
tracing, and transparent jjacking, 

586^ 587 
transfer, 587, 588 
treating, with ozocerite, 455, 456 
use of in Greece in the thirteenth 

century, 29 
waste, boiling, 224-229 

packing it in the tubs, 225 
to begin the boiling operation, 

225 
to extract inks from, 224 
sorting, 110-112 
washing, 316-323 
water-marked, cutting, 563-566 
water-marks on, 40 
water-proof emery, 583, 584 



INDEX. 



601 



Paper, water- proof — 

sizing for, 448, 449 ' 
transjjarent, and impervious to 
grease, 588 
■winder, 565, 5G6 
■winding, .defects in apparatus in 

general use, 566 
■wrapping for silverware, 588 
writing, copying, and di'awing which 
can be washed, 589 
preparing size for, 449 
to produce a hard surface upon, 
432, 433 
Papers colored, aniline colors used for, 
581 
glazed, black stain for, 487 
blue stains for, 487, 488 
brown stains for, 488 
green stains for, 488 
lemon-color, stain for, 488, 489 
red stains i'or, 489 
rose-color stain i'or, 489 
stains for, 487-489 
violet stain for, 489 
Morocco, black stain for, 489 
blue stains for, 490 
green stains for, 490 
orange-yellow stains for, 490 
red stains for, 490 
stains for, 489-491 
violet stains for, 490, 491 
yellow stains for, 491 
(old) and shavings, classification of, 

90, 91 
old folded news, means for facili- 
tating handling and opening, 
197-199 
preparation of various kinds of, 

579-589 
preserving, 586 

printed, apparatus for reducing the 
pulp, 196 
temperature of the water in 
pulping, 195 
satin, blue stains foi', 491 
brown stains for, 491 
gray stains for, 491, 492 
green stains for, 492 
lemon-color stain for, 492 
light violet stain for, 493 
orange-yellow stains for, 492 
rose-color stains for, 492, 493 
silver white stain for, 493 
stains for, 491-493 
white stain for, 493 



Papers, satin — 

yellow stain for, 493 
waste, methods of treating, 228, 229 
to make paper entirely there- 
from, 226-228 
Papyri, Egyptian, in the British Mu- 
seum, 21 
sizes of, 23 
hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demo- 
tic, 21-23 
Papyrus, description of, 23, 24 
early use of, 23 

when superseded by cotton paper, 24 
Paraffine, How's method of applying 
to paper, 452-455 
in water-proofing paper, 451, 452 
method of applying to paper and 
straw board, 452-455 
Parchment, probably invented by Eu- 
raenes, king of Pergamos, 24 
skins principally employed for its 

manufacture, 24 
statutes for regulating some relig- 
ious houses written upon, by the 
Empress Irene at the close of the 
eleventh century, 29 
Parisian violet, 482 

Parker and Blackman's apparatus for 
disinfecting fibrous materials while in 
the bale, 100-104 
Paste, starch, preparation of, 416 
Pasteboard, enamelled writing surfaces 

on, 584 
Patents, American, for pulp-engines and 
bed-plates, issued from 1790 
to 1885 inclusive, 408-411 
for puljj-washing and straining, 
issued from 1790 to 1885 
inclusive, 338-340 
for rag-dusters, 202 
for bleaching pulp, issued by the 
United States from 1790 to 1885 
inclusive, 389, 390 
for digesters for paper-pulp, issued 
"bvthe United States, 296- 

299 
Avith lead linings to be used in 
the preparation of cellulose, 
issued by the United States 
from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 
295, 296 
for preparing cellulose from wood 
by the acid or bisulphite pro- 
cesses issued by the United States 
from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295 



602 



INDEX. 



Patents — 

for rag cutters and dusters, list of 

American, from 1790 to 1885, 

143, 144 

for washing engines, American, 327 

for wood grinders, list of American, 

166-170 
paper in the United States from 

1820 to 1830, 55, 56 
relating to paper-making, Ameri- 
can, 1865 to 1885, 62, 63 
relating to paper-making machines 
issued by the United States from 
1790 to 1885 inclusive, 573-578 
Pearl alum, the most powerful sizing 
agent, 438 
ash, the best form of potash to em- 
ploy, 321, 322 
Pennsylvania, early paper-mills in, 43, 

44 
Perkins's violet, 481 
Perrot's metliod of estimating the 
amount of chlorine in bleaching 
powder, 348, 349 
solution, precautions in keeping, 
349 
Peterson's water- proof paper, 588 
Philadelphia, the first paper-mill near, 

42 
Phormium tenax, 83 
Photograph paper, size for, 449 
Photo-lithographic transfer paper, and 

transfer color belonging to it, 585 
Pictet and Brelaz's process of treating 
wood for convei'sion into paper-pulp, 
290-292 
Pigments, mineral, for yellow colors, 

470 
Pipe-joint, Roach's improved, applied 

to a hollow journal, 533-535 
Plate calenders, 560, 561 
Plumbic acetate, preparation of, 463 
Poaching esparto, 325-327 
Pocket-books, cheap, coloring of paper 

for, 484 
Poncharac's process of treating wood 

with aqua regia, 307 
Pond's process for bleaching wood-pulp 
or any other fibrous material, 365- 
367 
Porous alum, 43G, 437 
Porrion oven, sectional elevation and 

plan of, 258-260 
Potash alum, test of its purity, 436 
use of, in coloring, 436 



Potash alum — 

effects of cold and boiling solutions 
of, on linen and cotton fibres, 82 
the chromates of, 462 
Potassium ferrocyanide, for producing 

different shades of blue, 463 
Poulson's Daily Advertiser, 53 
Powder, bleaching, 341-346 

deterioration of, by keeping, 343, 

344 
injured by being packed too soon, 

343 
requisite attributes of, 343, 344 
Preparation of various kinds of paper, 

5 79-589 
Printed papers, apparatus for reducing 
to pulp, 196 
temperature of the water in 
pulping, 195 
Printing ink, to extract from waste 
paper, 224 
paper, sizing the surface of, 434, 
435 
Process of repulping stock, by Charles 
Coon, 320-322 
of washing and boiling rags, 185-189 
Processes of treating wood, acid, or bi- 
sulphite, 260-294 
other than the mechanical, soda, 
and bisulphite, for treating wood, 
299-305 
Proof, for determining the fineness of 

pulp, 395 
Pulp, apparatus for purifying, illus- 
trated, 498, 499 
cleaning of, by fermentation with 

beer yeast, 304, 305 
cloudy, remedy for, 395 
engines and bed plates, American 
patents issued for, from 1790 to 
1885 inclusive, 408-411 
experiments made in bleaching, 

304, 305 
fineness of, determined by the 

" proof," 395 
long and short, production of, 394 
machine for cutting and reducing 

wood to, 148-166 
made from old papers, bleaching 

of, 361 
nature of the, produced by Voelter's 

method, 164-166 
paper, Francke's apparatus for 
manufacturing from wood, etc., 
277-288 



INDEX. 



603 



Pulp, paper — 

Marshall's boiler for making 
from wood by the add or 
bisulphite processes, 292- 
294 
removal of incrnstating matter from, 
by hydrochloric or azotic acids, 
' 304 
•washing and straining, American 
patents issued for, from 1790 to 
1885 inclusive, 338-340 
wood, chemically prepared, 242- 
246 
washing, 324, 325 
yield of from esparto, straws, and 
pine wood, 307 
Pulping waste paper, quantity of alkali 

to be used in, 195 
Pulps for fine cardboard and wall papers, 
303, 304 
straw, classification of, 92 
wood, classification of, 91, 92 

Pond's process of bleaching, 
365-367 
Purchasing rags, 107, 108 



RAG boiler, rotary, illustrated, 204, 
205 

boilers, forms of, 204 
boiling, duration of time under 
pressure of thirty pounds steam, 
207 
cutters, list of American patents for, 

143, 144 
dusters, American patents for, 202 
paper, first mention of, 26 

first made by the Arabians in 
Spain, 33 
Kaijs, average waste of from washing, 
boiling, and reducing to half stuff, 
3'"l6 
boiling, 203-208 

use of lime and soda-ash in, 206, 
207 
city and country, 107 
classification of, 88-90, 109, 110 
colored, treatment of, 219-224 

treatment of in boiling, 206, 
207 
combined process of washing and 

boiling, 185-189 
cut, machine for reducing the loss 
in cleansing, 179-184 
sizes of, 143 



Rags — 

cutting by hand, 117-121 

by machinery, 121-144 
deeply dyed, proportion of lime 
and soda-ash in boiling, 206, 207 
disinfecting, 99-106 
dusting, 175-202 
first importation of, into the United 

States, 50 
frauds in baling, 107 
imported, quarantine regulations 

for, 99, 100 
linen, mixed with jute and cotton, 

107, 108 
natural humidity in, 107 
purchasing, 107, 108 
removing dust, etc., from, by ma- 
chinery, 109 
sorting according to fibre and color, 

109, 110 
Taylor's machine for separating 
small metallic substances from, 
139, 142 
value of, determined by the strength 

and color, 107 
waste of, from moisture, 178 
Record of Gistubar, 20 
Red (cherry, dark, and pale) stains 
for glazed papers, 489 
colors, natural dye-stufTs capable 

of producing, 464-469 
(dark and pale) stains for Morocco 

papers, 490 
Sanders wood, to extract coloring 

matter from, 466 
shades on paper, 464-469 
stain for artificial flower paper, 487 
Regulating the speed of the various 
portions of paper-making machinery, 
520-532 
Resin for water-proofing paper, 451, 452 
size, Gray's patent method of pre- 
paring, 420, 421 
used in paper-making, 92 
Resinous soap, preparation of, 415 
Resins, 445, 446 

commercial gradations of, 445 
purification of, 446 
Revolving boilers, 210-218 
Rice paper, so called, made from the 
marrow of the Orelia i^apyrifera, 27 
Rittenhiiysen, AVilliam, the first Amer- 
ican paper manufacturer, 43, 44 
Ritter and Kellner's proposed improve- 
ment to Mitscherlich's apparatus, 245 



604 



INDEX. 



Roach's improved pipe joint, illustrated, 

533-53;") 
Robert, N. L., date of his patent in 

France, 4 7 
Rolling and cutting, 562, 563 
Rolls, callender, Brewer's method of 
moistening, 546, 549 
H. J. Frink's method of pre- 
venting overheating, 551- 
554 
method for their easy remo- 
val and i-eplacement, 554- 
557 
Newton's method of moisten- 
ing, 549-551 
cylinder, stack of, Marshall's, 555- 
557 
Ropes, bagging, and threads, classifica- 
tion of, '90, 91 
boiling of, for tissue, cigarette, and 

copying paper, 207 
tarred, proportion of lime and soda 
ash in boiling, 206, 207 
Rosaniline, base of all the aniline red 
colors, 467 
violet, 482 
Rose color stain for artificial flower 
paper, 487 
stain for glazed papers, 489 
for satin papers, 492, 
493 
Rotary boiler for wood chips, 246-249 
illustrated, 215-218 
of Geo. F. Wilson, illustrated, 
211-214 
Ryan's, J. T., process of making first- 
class clean paper from imperfections, 
227, 228 
Rye-straw, treatment of, 237 



SALT OF MANGANESE, soluble, 
preparation of, 223 

Salts, solubility of, 206 

Satin papers, blue stains for, 491 
brown stains for, 491 
gray stains for, 491, 492 
green stains for, 492 
lemon color stains for, 492 
light violet stain for, 493 
orange-yellow stains for, 492 
pale yellow stain for, 493 
rose color stain for, 492, 493 
stains for, 491-493 
white stains for, 493 



Sawdust, difficulty of refining for pulp, 
and how its production may be avoid- 
ed, 302 
Scarlet stains for artificial flower paper, 

487 
Scythe holder, for cutting rags by hand, 

117-120 
Shavings and old papers, classification 

of, 90, 91 
Sheathing paper, asbestos largely used 
for, 580 
water- proofing, 451, 452 
Sheave, 113 

Short pulp, to produce, 394 
Silicate of soda for water-pi-oofing, 451, 

452 
Silverware, wrapping-paper for, 588 
white stain for satin papers, 493 
Sinclair's process of preparing wood- 
pulp, 242 
Single cylinder machine for forming 

thin papers, illustrated, 537, 538 
Sizal, description of, 83 
Size, animal, materials from which it is 
made, 421, 422 
resin, Gray's patented method of 
preparing, 420, 421 
Sizes of the cut rags, 143 
Sizing, 412-456 

engine, 413-420 

in the sheet and in the web, 421- 

428 
paper, materials used in, 435-448 
stock for paper-makers, 446-448 
the surface of printing paper, 434, 

435 
water-proof, for paper, 448, 449 
with a composition of soda ash, 
resin, chloride of sodium, linseed 
oil, and silicate of soda, 449- 
451 
with benzine and resin, 434 
Smith's (Richard) pneumatic guide, 

538-543 
Snell's tile strainer, 355, 356 
Soap, resinous, preparation of, 415 

solution, standard for testing water, 
334 
Soda ash and lime, use of in boiling 
rags, 206, 207 
best way to introduce it, 207, 

208 
use of, for dissolving ink from 
printed papers, 195 
boiling wood chips with, 24G-249 



INDEX. 



605 



Soda — 

caustic, quantities used in boiling 
different classes of rags, 208 
quantities used in boiling- 
esparto, 238 
process of digesting wood, defects 

of boilers for, 252-254 
recovery, 258-2G0 
silicate of, for water-proofing jiaper, 
451, 452 
Sodium, carbonate of, economical re- 
generation of, 260 
hyposulphite of, 897, 398 
Sorters, duty of. 111 
Sorting esparto, 112 
rags, 109, 110 
waste paper, 110-112 
Sour bleaching, 357, 358 
Southmayd's (John A.) process as a 
substitute for the bleaching processes 
usually practised in pulp-grinding 
engines, 382-385 
Spectrum, the, 458 

Speed of the various portions of paper- 
making machines, regulating, 520- 
532 
Stack of cylinder rolls (Marshall's), 

555-557 
Stains for glazed papers, 487-489 
for Morocco papers, 489-491 
for satin papers, 491-493 
used for coloring paper for artificial 
flowers, 485-487 
Starch, 446 

paste, preparation of, 416 
Stationary boilers, 209, 210 
Steam, latent heat of, 226 

manipulation by, causes a mechani- 
cal and chemical action, 304 
pressure of, in rag boiling, 206 
waste, to utilize, 226 
Steam-traps, Jaminson's improvement 

in, 535-537 
Stock, glue, preservation of, by tanners 
and tawer?, 423, 424 
treatment of, at the paper- 
mill, 424 
Strainer for the blow-off of paper-stock 

boilers, 215-218 
Straw and esparto, Bachet-Machard's 
process of disintegrating, 306 
bleaching of, 361-364 
Straw board, method of applying paraf- 
fine to, 452-455 
boiling, 229-237 



Straw boiling — 

coal tar with the alkalies em- 
ployed in treating, 235 
Burns' s process for treating, 231- 

235 
cutters, 144 
Mellier's process for treating, 229, 

230 
other methods of treating, 236, 237 
pulps, classification of, 92 
relative grade of tenderness of, 236, 

237 
washing, 323, 324 
Stripping fingers, John McLaughlin's 
invention, 558-560 
paper from off the last roller of 
calendering machines, 558-560 
Stuff regulator for paper making ma- 
chines, illustrated, 499-505 
Suction box for paper- making machines, 

514-518 
Surface coloring, 485 

pumps, application of to Fourdri- 

nier machine, 51, 52 
sizing, or sizing, in the sheet, and 
inW web, 4^21-428 



TABLES of hardness of water, 335 
Tar paper, 586 
Tariff, effects of the, on paper industry, 

after the war of 1812, 54 
Tarred rope, proportion of lime and 

soda in boiling, 206, 207 
Taylor's machine for cutting rags, 122- 
130 
for separating small metallic 
substances from rags and 
paper stock, 139-142 
Terra-cotta, extensive use of, in early 
ages, for business and legal docu- 
ments, 19 
Tessie's process of treating wood, 308 
Thin papers, single cylinder machine 

for, 53 7, 538 
Thomas, Isaiah, 49 

Threads, rope, and bagging, classifica- 
tion of, 90 
Tile strainer, Snell's, 355, 356 
Tissue, copying, and cigai'ette paper," 

boiling of ropes for, 207 
Tracing linen, tracing paper, and transpa- 
rent packing paper, 584, 586, 587 
paper, tracing linen, and trans- 
parent packing papei', 586, 587 



606 



INDEX. 



Transfer paper, 587, 588 

plioto-lithoofraphic, and trans- 
fer color belonging to it, 585 
Transparent packing paper, tracing pa- 
per, and tracing linen, 586, 587 



U'MNAPISTIN, the Babylonian 
Noah, 20 
Umpherston's beating engine, 406-408 
United States, the greatest paper manu- 
facturing country in the -world, 42, 43 



VEGETABLE colors, instability of, 
485 _ 
fibres, differentiating of, 81-84 
microscojiic study of, 77 
recognition of, 81-84 
substances not always desirable for 

coloring paper, 485 
tissues, bleaching by permanganate 
of potash, and neutralizing with 
oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, 
and chlorine, 382-385 
Vellum, ancient fragments of, the Gos- 
pel of St. Mark written upon, 28, 29 
Venetian red, used for delicate brown 

colors, 467 
Violet color stain, for glazed papers, 
489 
(dark and light) stains for Morocco 

paper, 490, 491 
(light) stain, for satin papers, 493 
shades on paper, 480-482 
Violets, aniline, Hoffman and Per- 
kins's, 481 
Parisian, rosaniline and naphtha- 
line, 482 
Voelter's machine for cutting or grind- 
ing wood and reducing it to pulp, 
148-166 
method, nature of the pulp pro- 
duced by, 164-166 
Voelter's Sons, Henry, purchase Kel- 
ler's patent, 5 7 



WALKER & Hart's machine for re- 
ducing the loss in cleaning, 179- 
184 
Wall-papers and card-boards, pulp for, 

303, 304 
Washer, glue stock, patented by W. A. 
Hoeveler, 424-427 



Washing and boiling rags, process of, 
185-189 
and poaching esparto, 325-327 
engines, American patents for, 327 
rags, 309-317 
straw, 323, 324 
waste paper or imperfections, 316- 

323 
wood pulp, 324, 325 
Wash water, 327-337 
Waste, average in reducing rags to half 
stuff, 316 
from dusting, 178, 179 
leather, how prepared for manu- 
facture of paper, 585 
paper, boiling, 224-229 

duster and washer, Allen & 

Mason's, 189-202 
packing it in the tubs, 225 
quantity of alkali to be used in 

pulping, 195 
sorting, riO-112 
temperature of the water in 

the vat when pulping, 195 
to begin the boiling operation, 

225 
to extract inks from, 224 
washing, 316-323 
papers, method of treating, 228, 229 
to make pnper entirely there- 
from, 226-228 
steam, to utilize, 226 
Wastes, classification of, 91 
Water, concentrated alum as a purifier 
of, 440, 441 
detection of iron in, 331, 332 
determination of constituents and 

hardness of, 331-33 7 
division of and sources of supply, 

328-330 
marks on paper, 40 
qualitative examination of, for ad- 
mixtures, 331-334 
river, substances most generally 

contained in, 330 
solvent properties of, 206 
tables of hardness of, 335 
wash, 327-337 
weight of, 328 
Water-marked paper, cutting, 563-566 
Water-proof emery paper, 683, 584 
paper, Peterson's, 588 
paper, transparent and imper- 
vious to grease, 588 
sizings for paper, 448, 449 



INDEX. 



607 



Water-proofing building or sheathing 
paper with a composition of resin, 
paraffine and silicate of soda, 451, 
452 
Waters, components of, 328 
Wet dusting, 185-189 

machine, illustrated, uses of, 369 
picking esparto, 1 1 2 
Wheat straw, treatment of, 236, 23 7 
White, silvery, stain for satin papers, 
493 
stain for satin papers, 493 
Willcox, James M. & Co., paper- 
makers, 44 
Thomas, Ivy Mill built bv, in 1727, 
44 
Wilson and O'Reilley's apparatus and 
process of treatino; colored rags, 219- 
224 
Wilson's, Geo. F., patent rotary boiler, 

illustrated, 211-214 
AVinder, paper, 565, 566 
Winding apparatus, defects in, 566 
Wire guide, automatic, for paper-mak- 
ing machines, 505-514 
AVood, acid or bisulphite processes of 
treating, 260-294 
American patents for preparing cel- 
lulose from, issued from 1790 to 
1885, inclusive, 295 
Aussedat's process of treating, 299- 

304 
Bachet-Machard's process of dis- 
integrating, 305-307 
boiling", 242-258 

cellulose, objections to the acid pro- 
cess of obtaining, 246 
chipper, uneven products obtained 

from its use, 302 
crushing machine of Twan Koech- 

lin, 302, 303 
cutting, for chemical fibre, 145 
defects of boiling, for digesting, by 

the soda process, 252-254 
fibre, bleaching of, 364-367 
grinders, list of American patents 

for, 166-170 
grinding machine, invented by Kel- 
ler in 1844, 5 7 
machine, Keller's patent on, 
purchased by Henry Voel- 
ter's Sons, 57 
machine for disintegrating fibres of, 
146, 147 



Wood- 
Marshall's boiler for digesting, by 
the soda process, 254- 
258 
for treating by acid or bi- 
sulphite process, 292- 
294 
methods other than the mechanical, 
soda, and bisulphite processes for 
treating, 299-308 
paper made from, difficulty experi- 
enced in introducing, to the trade, 
57-59 
Pictet and Br61az's process of con- 
verting into paper pulp, 290- 
292 
pulp, chemical, woods most easily 
used for, 246 
chemically prepared, 242-246 
classification of, 91, 92 
objections to the modern chem- 
ical processes of preparing, 
245 
Pond's j)rocess of bleaching,- 

365—36 7 
washing, 324, 325 
some of the defects of the acid or 
bisulphite process of treatins, 
289, 290 
straw, etc., bleaching of, 3G7-376 
Tessi^'s process of treating, 308 
treating before grinding, 145-147 
with ammonia, 307, 308 
with aqua regia, 307 
Voelter's machine for cutting and 
reducing to pulp, 148-166 
Wi-apping paper for silverware, 588 
Wright's machine for cutting corn 

husks, 171-174 
Writing, copying, and drawing paper 
which can be washed, 589 
ink, to extract from waste paper, 

224 
paper, preparing size for, 449 

to produce a hard surface upon, 
432, 433 



YELLOW colors, mineral pigments 
for, 470 
(orange) stain for glazed papers, 
489 
stain for Morocco papers, 490 
stains for satin papers, 492 



608 



INDEX. 



Yellow- 
pale, stain for Morocco papers, 491 

stain for satin papers, 493 
shades on paper, to pi'oduce, 469- 

471 
stains for artificial flower paper, 
486, 487 



Young's (Cornelius) stuff regulator for 
paper-making machines, illustrated, 
499-505 



yiNC bleach liquor, 352, 353 



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BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion : 

Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stuffs and Chemicals 
used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses ; Mordants, and How Made ; 
with the best American, English, French and German processes for 
Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, 
Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, 
Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, 
Furs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, 
together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the 
Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing of 
Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline 
and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- 
ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 
170 Dyed Samples of Raw Materials and Fabrics. By F. J, Bird, 
Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book." 8vo. ^10.00 

BLINN. — A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- 
Iron, and Copper-plate Workers : 
Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by 
Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geometry; 
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of 
Metals, Lead-pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumferences 
of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., 
etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With over One 
Hundred Illustrations. i2mo. ..... ^2.50 



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BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual: 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their 
Cutting, Working and Polishing ; Veneering of Marble ; Mosaics : 
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, 
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. 
With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. i2mo., cloth ^1.50 

BOOTH and MORFIT.— The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, 
Practical and Theoretical : 
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chem- 
istry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, 
author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh Edition. Com- 
plete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts 
and other illustrations ....... ^5-00 

BRAM WELL.— The Wool Carder's Vade-Mecum : 

A Complete Manual of the Art of Carding Textile Fabrics. By W. 
C. Bramwell. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated, 
pp. 4.00. i2mo. ........ ^2.50 

BRANNT. — ^ Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the 
Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol, and the Prepara- 
tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc. : 
Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. K. Stammer, Dr. F. Eisner, 
and E. Schubert. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. i2mo. ....... ^2.50 

BRANNT.— The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book: 

Containing several thousand Receipts comprising the latest and most 
useful discoveries in Chemital Technology and Industry. Edited 
from the German of Drs. E. Winckler, Heintze and Mierzinski, 
with additions by W. T. Brannt. (yln preparatio7t.') 

BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements: 
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other 
Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and in- 
cluding many movements never before published, and several of 
which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown. 
i2mo. .......... ^i.oo 

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics : 
By J. C. BucKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
i2mo. .......... ^1.50 

BULLOCK.— The American Cottage Builder : 

A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from ^200 to ^20,000, 
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, 
Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $3-SO 

BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: 
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- 
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of " The 
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BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. 

By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... ^1.50 

BURNS. — The American Woolen Manufacturer: 

A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of "Woolens, in two parts. 
Part First gives full and explicit instructions upon Drafting, Cross- 
Drawing, Combining Weaves, and the correct arrangement of Weights, 
Colors and Sizes of Yarns to produce any desired fabric. Illustrated 
with diagrams of various weavings, and twelve samples of cloth for 
explanation and practice. Part Second is fully supplied with ex- 
tended Tables, Rules, Examples, Explanations, etc. ; gives full and 
practical information, in detailed order, from the stock department to 
the market, of the proper selection and use of the various grades and 
staples of wool, with the admixture of waste, cotton and shoddy; and 
the proper application and economical use of the various oils, drugs, 
dye stuffs, soaps, belting, etc. Also, the most approved method for 
Calculating and Estimating the Cost of Goods, for all Wool, Wool 
Waste and Cotton and Cotton Warps. With Examples and Calcula- 
tions on the Circular motions of Wheels, Pinions, Drums, Pulleys 
and Gears, how to speed them, etc. The two parts combined form a 
whole work on the American way of manufacturing more complete 
than any yet issued. By George C. Burns. 8vo. . . ^6.50 

BYLES.— Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Economy Examined. 

By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . #1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of W^ool for Technical Purposes : 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. H. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo I6.50 

BYRN.— The Complete Practical Distiller: 

Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Pi-actical De- 
scription of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; including all of 
the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for 
preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc ; directions 
for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other 
spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc. By M. La Fayette 
Byrn, M. D. Eighth Edition. To which are added Practical 
Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer and 
Distiller. i2mo • . . ^1.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer: 
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



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Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. . . . . . . . . $5.00 

BYRNE.— Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers : 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. iSmo., full bound, pocket-book 
form ^1-75 

BYRNE.— The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardeni\ig and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet- Iron. By John Percy, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. Svo. ...... ^7.00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navai 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
600 pages I4.50 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Oblong, Svo 53oO 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. i2mo ^1.50 

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work.' 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the 
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel- 
cutting Machine, By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ- 
ing I'orging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking .and 
Expansim ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. Svo. 
Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings ^^5.00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer- 
cial. 8vo. ..... . . ^1.50 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . ^^2.25 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. ;^6.oo 

Past, Present and Future. Svo ^2.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, Svo. . . $10.00 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). Svo. . . . ^2.00 

The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science {1872). Svo. . . ^^3.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex- 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. KiNNEAR Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. Svo. . $12.50 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah CoLBURN. Illustrated. i2mo. . $1.00 

COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Historv 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . $1.25 

COOLEY.^A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery : 
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold J, 
CooLEY. i2mo $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans-, 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By 
John H. Cooper, M. E. Svo • . $3.50 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and Miller. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates, §vo, , . . . $5-00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CRISTIANL— A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles : 

With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . #7.50 

CRISTIANL— Perfumery and Kindred Arts : 

A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of 
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete 
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in 
the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful 
Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of 
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters, 
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics, 
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes, 
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc. ; and full details for 
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc., 
by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and 
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors, 
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor- 
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts for 
various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. Cristiani, Con- 
sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. . . i^S-OG 

CUPPER.— The Universal Stair-Builder : 

Being a new Treatise on the Construction of Stair-Cases and Hand- 
Rails; showing Plans of the various forms of Stairs, method of 
Placing the Risers in the Cylinders, general method of describing 
the Face Moulds for a Hand-Rail, and an expeditious method of 
Squaring the Rail. Useful also to Stonemasons constructing Stone 
Stairs and Hand-Rails ; with a new method of Sawing the Twist 
Part of any Hand-Rail square from the face of the plank, and to a 
parallel width. Also, a new method of forming the Easings of the 
Rail by a gauge ; preceded by some necessary Problems in Practical 
Geometry, with the Sections of Prismatic Solids. Illustrated by 29 
plates. By R. A. Cupper, Architect, author of " The Practical 
Stair-Builder's Guide." Third Edition. Large 410. . ^2.50 

DAVIDSON.— A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: 
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. 

$3-oo 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 
Mining : 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. i2mo. ....... $5.00 



lo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

DA VIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, i2mo., 450 pages ^5.00 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates. i2mo. ........ ^2.50 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, 
Tiles, Terra- Gotta, etc. : 
Including Common, Pressed, Ornamentally Shaped, and Enamelled 
Bricks, Drain-Tiles, Straight and Curved Sewer- Pipes, Fire-Clays, 
Fire-Bricks, Terra-Cotta, Roofing- Tiles, Floorinij- Tiles, Art-Tiles, 
Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces; com- 
prising every important Product of Clay employed in Architecture, 
Engineering, the Blast-Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a History and 
the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegrating, Tem])ering, and 
Moulding the Clay into Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially, 
Setting and Burning, Enamelling in Polychrome Colors, Composition 
and Application of Glazes, etc. ; including Full Detailed Descriptions 
of the most modern Machines, Tools, Kilns, and Kiln-Roofs used. 
By Charles Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 228 Engravings and 
6 Plates. 8vo., 472 pages . . .... ^5.00 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, 
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather ; including 
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determinino- their 
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con- 
nected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with 
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are 
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro- 
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By Charles 
Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of 
Dyed Leathers. One vol., Svo., 824 pages . . . ^10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw^ Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 

of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. i2mo. . . . ;?2.5o 

DE GRAFF,— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all it:^ 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles 
of Practical Geometry. By SiMON De Graff, Architect. 4to. 

;^2.so 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO'.S CATALOGUE. n 



DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 
Analysis and Assaying : 

As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. De 
KoNiNCK, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . ^2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of com- 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher- 
By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . ^1.25 
DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grnin, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho- 
del, Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro*. 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Sjjirituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duplais] 
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the 
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and 
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen 
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $1000 

DUSSAUCE.— A General Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Vinegar : 
Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the 
Slow and the Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Malt, 
Cider, Molasses, and Beets; as well as the Fabrication of Wood 
Vinegar, etc., etc. By Prof. H. DussAUCE. 8vo. . I5 00 

DUSSAUCE.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, 
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. 
By Professor H. Dussauce. lamo. ... fa 00 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-ofif, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. ^i 25 

EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 

For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. i2mo. 414 pages . . . ^2 00 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 

Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards. 
Illustrated i2mo . $2 00 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and 
Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of 
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. ^5.00 

EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 420 pages, 
l2mo |2 50 

ELDER.— Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy, 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. ^2 50 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. WiLLiAM Elder. 8vo. . $3 00 

ELDER. — Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. cloth 75 

ERNL — Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including 
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of 
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry 
Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, 
enlarged and improved. i2mo. . . . , . $300 

FAIRBAIRN.— The Prmciples of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission • 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR William Fairbairn, Bart. 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume, i2mo ^2.50 

FITCH.— Bessemer Steel, 

Ores and Methods, New Facts and Statistics Relating to the Types 
of Machinery in Use, the Methods in Vogue, Cost and Class of Labor 
employed, and the Character and Availability of the Ores utilized in 
the Manufacture of Bessemer Steel in Europe and in the United States ; 
together with opinions and excerpts from various accepted authorities. 
Compiled and arranged by Thomas W. Fitch. Svo. . $3 00 

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America. 

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, Svo ;^i 50 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . . ?5 00 



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FRANKEI — HUTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch- Sugar, and Dextrine : 

Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . ^3.50 

GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
inckiding the Art of Alloymg, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining ; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. . . $i.7S 

GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula- 
tion; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee, Jeweller. Illustrated. i2mo. 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS : 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong ^2.00 
GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the RoUing- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood, F. C. S. Asso. M. I. C. E., M. I. M. E., Associate of the Royal 
School of Mines. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. i2mo. . ^2.00 
GREGORY. — Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates &2 00 

GRIER.— Rural Hydraulics : ' f iP^- 

A Practical Treatise on Rural Household Water Supply. Giving a 
full description of Springs and Wells, of Pumps and Hydraulic Ram, 
with Instructions m Cistern Building, Laying of Pipes etc By w' 
W. Grier. Illustrated 8vo. . "^ -- 

GRIMSHAW.— Modern Milling: ^ 

Being the substance of two addresses delivered by request, at the 
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, January 19th and January 27th 
1881. By Robert Grimshaw, Ph. D. Edited from the Phono- 
graphic Reports. With 28 Illustrations. 8vo. . «r 00 
GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison 
of Saws of all kinds, m^/i Copious Appendices. Giving the details 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of 
Saws; Tables of Gauges; Capacities of Saw-Mills; List of Saw- 
Patents, and other valuable information. By Robert Grimshaw. 
Second and greatly enlarged edition, with Supplement, and 354 Illus- 
trations. Quarto . . . . . . . . ^4.00 

GRIMSHAW. — A Supplement to Grimshaw on Saws: 

Containing additional practical matter, more especially relating to the 
Forms ol Saw-Teeth, for special material and conditions, and to the 
Behavior of Saws under particular conditions. 120 Illustrations. By 
Robert Grimshaw. Quarto ..... ;^2.oo 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the 
Field: 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En- 
gineers ; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2mo., tucks ^i-7S 

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines of 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . ^2.50 

GOETTIER.— MetaUic Alloys: 

Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, 
their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the 
French of A. GuETTiER, Engineer and Di"ector of Founderies, 
author of " La Fouderie en France," etc., etc. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. lamo. ..... $3-O0 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including B'.eaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarns 
or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ ^25.00 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . ^1.25 

HENRY. — The Early and Later History of Petroleum : 

With Authentic Facts in resard to its Development in Western Penn- 
sylvania. With Sketches of the Pioneer and Prominent Operators, 
together with the Refining Capacity of the United States. By J. T. 
Henry. Illustrated 8vo. 

HOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of 

Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and 

Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha Compositions, Water- 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 



proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc. 
From the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. Erannt. 
Illustrated i2mo. ........ ^2.!;o 

HOFMANN.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Paper in all its Branches : 
By Carl Hofmann, Uate Superintendent of Paper-Mills in Germany 
and the United States ; recently Manager of the " Public Ledger " 
Paper-Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by no wood'' en- 
gravings, and five large Folding Plates. 4to., cloth; about 400 
pases ;^5o.oo 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. i2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Militaiy Academy, Wool- 
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En- 
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graph Departments; Royal Marine Light Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto .... $^ Ti 

JERVIS.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
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KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla. 
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ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. 8vo. ........ $1.2? 

KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
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By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . ;g3.oo 

KELLOGG. — A New Monetary System : 

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
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By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on "Labor and 
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Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which is 
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Paper cover ......... ^i.oo 

Bound in cloth ........ 1.50 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book : 

Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
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other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo, 
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r6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH. — A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga. 
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KERL.— The Assayer's Manual : 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines ; Member of the Royal Technical 
Commission for the Industries, and of the Imperial Patent-Office, 
Berlin. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, 
Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia. 
Edited by William H. Wahl, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin 
Institute, Philadelphia. Illustrated by sixty-five engravings. 8vo. 

$3-O0 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes ©f the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas 
KiNGZETT, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. ^2.50 

KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor on Lumber Surveying : 

For the Use of Lumber Manufacturers, Surveyors, and Teachers. 
By Charles Kinsley, Practical Surveyor and Teacher of Surveying. 
i2mo. .......... ^2.00 

KIRK.— The Founding of Metals: 

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the 
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances 
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By 
Edward Kirk, Practical Fouudryman and Chemist. Illustrated. 
Third edition. 8vo. . . . ... . . ^2.50 

KITTREDGE.— The Compendium of Architectural Sheet- 
Metal Work : 
Profusely Illustrated. Embracing Rules and Directions for Estimates, 
Items of Cost, Nomenclature, Tables of Brackets, Modillions, Den- 
tals, Trusses, Stop-Blocks, Frieze Pieces, etc. Architect's Specifica- 
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added the Exemplar of Architectural Sheet-Metal Work, containing 
details of the Centennial Buildings, and other important Sheet-Metal 
Work, Designs and Prices of Architectural Ornaments, as manufac- 
tured for the Trade by the Kittredge Cornice and Ornament Com- 

• pany, and a Catalogue of Cornices, Window-Caps, Mouldings, etc., as 
manufactured by the Kittredge Cornice and Ornament Company, 
The whole supplemented by a full Index and Table of Contents. By 
A, O. Kittredge. 8vo., 565 pages . ... . $5.00 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquei , Chemist and En- 
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro- 
cesses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867, 

l2mo. . ^3.00 

LARDEN.— A School Course on Heat: 

By W. Larden, M. A. 321 pp. lamo $2.00 

LARDNER.— The Steam- Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated. i2mo. 

75 

LARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improvements in the 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By 
James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, 
revised, with extensive additions. l2mo. . . . ^2.25 

LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to' Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni- 
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. ..... ^5.00 

LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams : 

Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. ^2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. In i2mo., cloth :SSl.,50 

LIEBER. — Assayer's Guide ; 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By OsCAR M. LlEBER. l2mo. . . . ^1.25 

ILiOVE. — The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and Finish- 
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Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woolens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Win- 
dow Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. Prench and English Cleaning, 
any Color or- Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By Thomas Love, 
a Working Dyer and Scourer. Second American Edition, to which 



iS HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

are added General Instructions for the use of Aniline Colors. 8vo. 

343 pages ^S-OO 

LUKIN.— Amongst Machines: 

Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used 
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metai, and other Substances. i2mo. 

^1-75 
LUKIN. — The Boy Engineers: 

What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. i8mo. 

^1-75 
LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic : 

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds 
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical 
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LuKiN, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc., Illustrated. 
I2mo. ^1.75 

MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine : 

And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 

Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 

and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . ^1.50 

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas 
7. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . ^1.50 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 

By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. . . . ^S-*^ 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 
Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer.. 
8vo. , 50 

MICHELL. — Mine Drainage: 

Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under- 
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By Stephen 
MiCHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . ^6.00 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 
bound in Pocket-book form ....•• Si. 00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 19 



MOORE.— The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
chanic : 
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo. . ^2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous 
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examoles, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 

By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo ^1.50 

MORTON. — The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer- 
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Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa- 
tion. By James Morton. Second Edition, enlarged, with the 
Metric System. i2mo. ....... ^i.oo 

NAPIER.— Manual of Electro-Metallurgy : 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. 8vo. ^1.50 
NAPIER.— A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 

By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus- 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages ^5.00 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formula, for 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, Avith Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons ; general infor- 
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Iohn Neville, C. E. M. R. 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick 

I2mo ^3,53 

NEWBERY. — Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By 
Robert Newbery. 4to. ^12.50 

NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 

Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor, 
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths, 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By SAMUEL NiCHOLLS. Illus- 
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NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding: 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
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NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 

A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By William J. Nicolls, Civil 
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NORMANDY.— The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
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Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic or 
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to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick l2mo. ......... ^5.00 

NORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
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Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
l2mo ^1.50 

NORTH.— The Practical Assayer: 

Containing Easy Methods for the Assay of the Principal Metals and 
Alloys. Principally designed for explorers and those interested in 
Mines. By Oliver North. Illustrated. i2mo. . ^^2.50 

NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics: 
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accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
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NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . ^1.50 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing : 

Containing a brief account of ail the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo., 
491 pages . . , ;g5.oo 

ORTON. — Underground Treasures*. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 

Orton, A.m., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the 
"Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. 
Illustrated ......... i^I.50 

OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel : 
Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference 
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OsBORN, LL. D., 
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, 
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and 
wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... ^^25. 00 

OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : 

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A, Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . ^1.50 

OVERMAN. — The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Mouldingand Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
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etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
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PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : 
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PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . ^3.00 

PEARSE. — A Concise History of the Iron Manufacture of the 
American Colonies up to the Revolution, and of Pennsyl- 
vania until the present time. 
By John B. Pearse. Illustrated i2mo. , . , $2.00 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

PERCY. — The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the 
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of 
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PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific 
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. 
By E. E. Perkins. i2mo., cloth ^1.25 

PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge 
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 1 12 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, apd Long Weight into Short. 
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POWELI CHANCE— HARRIS.— The Principles of Glass 

Making. 
By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 
Sheet Glass; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H. 
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PROTEAUX.— Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper 
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By A. Proteaux. From the French, by Horatio Paine, A. B., 
M. D. To which is added the Manufacture of Paper from Wood, 
by Henry T. Brown. Illustrated by six plates. 8vo. 

PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
for Marine Engineers. 
By Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Full bound pocket-book form ...... i^l.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry. 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7-SO 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
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Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors ; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; the 
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 

r. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engmeer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
vol., 8vo., 659 pages .....-• ^7-5*^ 

ROPER.— A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Corxdensing 
Steam-Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- 
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- 
phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge ^2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer's Handy-Book: 

Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its 
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae 
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines ; also. 
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service, 
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. i6mo.. 690 pages, tucks, 
gilt edge $3-50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 

Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers. With iUustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,ti'cks, gilt edge. 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 

With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... ^S-S*^ 

ROPER.^ — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or- 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . ^3-00 

ROPER. — Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth editicm, with illustrations. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . ^2.00 

ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By JoSHUA Rose. Illus- 
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., I2mo., 439 pages ^2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: 

Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Mo- 
tions, Engines and Boilers. By JosHUA Rose, M. E., Author of 
" The Complete Practical Machinist," " The Pattern-maker's Assist- 
ant," " The Slide-valve." Illustrated by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 
pages ;g4.oo 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained : 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of the 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrating 
the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples carefully 
selected from the most recent and successful practice. By JoSHUA 
Rose, M. E., Author of " The Complete Practical Machinist," " The 
Pattern-maker's Assistant," etc. Illustrated by 35 engravings ^l.oo 
ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. - 
Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A. F., G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 
l2mo. .......... ^1.50 

SHAW. — Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 410 ^lo.oo 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By William F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. i2mo. Full bound pocket- 
book form ^2.00 

SLATER. — The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 
By J. W. Slater. i2mo $3-75 

SLOAN. — American Houses: 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
twenty-six colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By 
Samuel Sloan, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc.. 
etc. 8vo ^1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays oh Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo $3SO 

SMEATON.— Builder's Pocket-Companion : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture ; 
with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By 
A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. . . . $1.50 

SMITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A new Edition, to which is added a fuK 
Index. i2mo. ........ $1-2$ 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure-Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... ^2.00 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . #3.00 

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S.' 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. I2mo. . . . . . . $^-7S 

SNIVELY. — A Treatise on the Manufacture of Perfumes and 
Kindred Toilet Articles. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry in 
the Tennessee College of Pharmacy. 8vo. . . . ^3.00 

SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal- 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. .... ^i.oo 

SNIVELY. — The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

^2.00 

STEWART.— The American System : 

Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, 
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United 
States. By Andrew Stewart, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. 
With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . ^3.00 

STOKES. — The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion : 
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl- Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain- 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues, 
Cements, and Compositions; with numerous Receipts, useful to work- 
men generally. By J. Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with 
an Appendix upon French Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, 
etc., etc. i2mo. ........ ^1.25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of- 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- 
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto . ^10.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. 

By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of "Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8vo ^1.50 



26 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. 

By David Syme. i2mo. ^2.00 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 
By Measurement. Clolh ...... 63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal : 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- 
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
cloth .......... ^10.00 

TEMPLETON.— The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 
Steam -Engine : 
With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 
Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- 
gineer. i2mo. ........ ^1.25 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
orated from personal experience by Julius E. Thausing, Professor 
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt. 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. Schwarz 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 81 q 
pages ^lo.ob 

THOMAS.— The Modern Practice of Photography: 

By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 75 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. l2mo. .... ^1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 24mo. . . ;?i.25 

TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn^ 
ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. 

I2mo ;^1.25 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 
Hand or Foot-Lathe : 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 
Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to ;^3.oo 

URBIN— BRULL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and 
Steel. 
By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay, 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 27 



read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of 
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is 
added A Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and 
Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fes- 
QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. .... ^i.oo 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Ph.tterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to ^5.00 

VILLE. — ^On Artificial Manures : 

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes. 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages ^6.00 

VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 

Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With Illustrations. i2mo. .... I1.25 

VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
and Price-Book : 

Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of United States 
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes 
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete 
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting ; also. Rules for 
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- 
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By 
Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 

form, gilt edges ;^2.oo 

Cloth . . 1.50 

WAHL. — Galvanoplastic Manipulations : 

A Practical Guide tor the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal- 
vanoplastic Operator. Comprising the Electro-Deposition of all 
Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, 
as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im- 
mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed 
in the Art, etc. Based largely on the " Manipulations Hydioplas- 
tiques" of Alfred Roseleur. By William H. Wahl, Ph. D. 
(Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 en- 
gravings. 8vo., 656 pages . . . . . . ,^7.50 

WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 

By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large 
and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. ^5.00 



28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva- 
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewis 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

$4.00 
WARN.— The Sheet-Metal "Worker's Instructor: 

For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical 
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . ^3.00 

WARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes- 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- 
tical Treatise ; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix. 
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana- 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising 
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales 
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models : 
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
Excavations and Embankments. By John Warner, A. M., Mining 
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised 
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... ^4.00 

WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds. 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. i^l.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers : 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togethei 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. ,39 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam- 
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . ^2.50 

WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving 
by Hand and Power : 
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the 
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- 
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 
8vo. . . . • #7.50 

WATT. — The Art of Soap Making: 

A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander 
Watt. 111. i2mo. ;^3.oo 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 

And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained, 
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur- 
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by 
Confectioners and others. i2mo. ..... ^l-50 

WEDDING.— Elements of the Metallurgy of Iron. 

By Dr. Hermann Wedding, Royal Privy Counsellor of Mines, Ber- 
lin, Prussia. Translated from the second revised and rewritten Ger- 
man edition. By William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Ag- 
ricultural College at Eldena, Prussia. Edited by William H. 
Wahl, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 
Illustrated by about 250 engravings. 8vo., about 500 pages {^In prep- 
aration.^ ......... 

WEINHOLD.— Introduction to Experimental Physics, Theo- 
retical and Practical. 
Including directions for Constructing Physical Apparatus and for 
Making Experiments. By Adolf F. Weinhold, Professor in the 
Royal Technical School at Chemnitz. Translated and edited, with 
the author's sanction, by Benjamin Loewy, F. R. A. S., with a 
preface, by G. C. Foster, F. R. S. Illustrated by three colored plates 
and 404 wood-cuts. 8vo., 848 pages . . . , ' ^6.00 

WIGHTWICK.— Hmts to Young Architects : 

Compnsmg Advice to those who, whde yet at school, are destined 
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about 
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are 
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involviiig a 
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By Georgk 
WlGHTWiCK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably 
enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Constructiori 
and Design. By G. HusKissoN Guillaume, Architect. Numerous 
Illustrations. One vol. i2mo. ...... 32.OO 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. HiifES, 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. 

8vo. . . • ^i-SO 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. 

^350 
WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers : 

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert 
Wilson. Illustrated i2mo I2.50 

WILSON. — Cotton Carder's Companion : 

In which is given a description of the manner of Picking, Baling, 
Marketing, Opening, and Carding Cotton ; to which is added a list of 
valuable Tables, Rules, and Receipts, by Foster Wilson. lamo. 

Si. 50 

WILSON. — First Principles of Political Economy : 
With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 

. By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and 
revised edition. i2mo. ....... ^1.50 

WOHLER.— A Hand-book of Mineral Analysis. 

By F. Wohler, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated 
i2mo. .......... $3.00 

WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws : 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. . ^2.50 



RECENT ADDITIONS, 

ANDERSON— The Prospector's Hand-Book : 

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metdl Bearing 
or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson. 52 Illustrations. 
i2mo ^1.50 

BILGRAM.— Slide-Valve Gears : 

A new, graphical method for Analyzing the Action of Slide-Valves, 
moved by Eccentrics, Link Motions, and Cut-off Gears, offering easy 
means for properly designing Valves and Valve-Gears, and for estab- 
lishing the comparative merits of their various constructions. By 
Hugo Bilgram, M. E. Illustrated. i6mo. . . . ^i.oo 

CREW. — A Practical Treatise on Petroleum : 

Comprising its Geographical Distribution, its Geology, Chemistry, 
Mining, Refining, Preparation, and Uses. Together with a Descrip- 
tion of Gas Wells and the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc. By 
Benjamin J. Crew. Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation.) 

CROOKES.— Select Methods in Chemical Analysis (Chiefly 
Inorganic) : 
By William Crookes, F. R. S., V. P. C. S. 2d edition, re-written 
and greatly enlarged. Illustrated by 37 wood-cuts. 725 pp. 8vo. ^9.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 31 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale : 

By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. ^2.00 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Paper: 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation.) 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 

Firemen 

Who wish,to Procure a License, Certificate, or Permit to Take Charge 

of any class of Steam Engines or Boilers, Stationary, Locomotive, 

and Marine. By Stephen Roper, Engineer . . . ^2.00 

ROPER.— The Steam Boiler : Its Care and Management : 
With Instructions for Increasing the Efficiency and Economy, and 
Insuring the Durability and Longevity of all classes of Steam 
Boilers, Stationary, Locomotive, Marine, and Portable. With Hints 
and Suggestions, and Advice to Engineers, Firemen, and Owners of 
Steam Boilers. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt 
edges .... $2.00 

ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book : 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
Engineer. With 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck, gilt 
edges . . fe.oo 



ECONOMIC PAPERS 



By Henry Carey Baird 



" A Floating Debt." 1885, - - - 5 cts. 

Argument before the Committee on 
Ways and Means, March 9, 1876. In 
opposition to the issue of Jf500,000,000 
of 30 year 4>^ gold bonds. 8vo., - 20 cts. 

Brief Tracts on Some Economic Ques- 
tions (1882-1885), . - - - 10 cts. 

Commerce or Association ; and the 
Present Relations to it of the Unlim- 
ited Coinage of Silver. An address be- 
fore the Anti-Monopoly League, in 
New York City, December 16, 1885, 5 cts. 

Copyright, National and International 
(1872). 5 cts. 

Copyright, National and International. 
An Address before the Book-Trade 
Association of Philadelphia, Febru- 
ary 23, 1884, 5 cts. 

Criticisms on the Recent Financial 
Policies of the United States and 
France (1875). Svo., - - - 10 cts. 

Germany. The Crime of Incompetent 
Governorship, as illustrated by the re- 
cent Financial and Monetary" History 
of Germany (187ri). 8yo., - - " 10 cts. 

Lessons from Abroad. Observations 
that point Morals (1876). 8vo., - Sets. 

Letters on the Crisis, the Currency and 
the Credit System (1873). 8vo., - 10 cts. 

Money. Reprinted from the American 
Cyclopgedia, 1875, - - - - 75 cts. 

Money and Its Substitutes. Commerce 
and Its Instruments of Adjustment. 
Reprinted from the Atlantic Monthly, 
March, 1876. 8vo., - - - 10 cts. 

Mr. Blaine and the Issue of the Canvass. 
The Address of the Executive Com- 
mittee of the Philadelphia Indepen- 
dents Reviewed (1884). - - - 5 cts. 

Mr. David A. Wells on Over-Production 
and Foreigif Trade. An Examination 
of some Remarks of Mr. Wells, at the 
Free Foreign-Trade Dinner in New 
York City, March 15, 1884, - - 5 cts. 

Mr. Hewitt as a Philosopher and a 
Statesman. His Theory of Cheap Raw 
Materials as a Basis for National 
Wealth, Power and Civilization, Ex- 
amined and Disputed (1884). - - 5 cts. 

Mr. Sherman and the National Outlook 
(1878). - 5 cts. 

Our Bank Credit System. Its Increasing 
Inflation and Decreasing Strength 
(1880). 8vo., ----- 5 cts. 

Political Economy. Reprinted from the 
American Cyclopaedia, 1876. 8vo., 
paper, 75 cts. 

Protection of Home Labor and Home 
Productions necessary to the Prosperity 
of the American Farmer (1860). 8vo., 10 cts. 

Quinine (1880). 8vo., - - - . 5 cts. 

Real Cause of Business Stagnation in 
the United States. 12mo., St. John, N. 
B., 187S, 10 cts. 



Remonetization of Silver. Testimony 
before the United States Monetary 
Commission in relation to the Remone- 
tization of Silver, October 31, 1876. 
8vo., 

Resumption of Specie Payments. Tes- 
timony before the Committee on Bank- 
ing and Currency in relation to the 
Resumption of Specie Pavments, 
April 24, 1878. Svo., 

Sherman's Silver Theory. Its Sound- 
ness Disputed (1877). - - - 

Some of the Fallacies of British Free- 
Trade Revenue Reform. Two Letters 
to Prof A. L. Perrj^, of Williams Col- 
lege, Mass. (1870). - - - - 

The British Credit System. Inflated 
Bank Credit as a Substitute for "Cur- 
rent Money of the Realm" (1875). 
8vo., ------- 

The "Clipped" "Ninety-Cent Dollar" 
Vindicated (1880). - - - - 

The Duty on Books. Argument before 
the Finance Committee, United States 
Senate, May 23, 1872, 

The Eastern and the Western Questions. 
Turkey and the United States : How 
they travel a Common Road to Ruin. 
Addressed by way of warning to 
President Hayes (1877). 8vo., 

The Evolution of the True Government 
(1879). ------- 

The Greenback: Should it be Deprived 
of its Legal-Tender Power? (1879). 

The Lesson of German and French Fi- 
nance. A Reply to the N. Y. Nation 
(1876). 8vo., ------ 

The National Finances (1877). 8vo., 

The Necessary Foundations of Individ- 
ual aiid National Weil-Being and of 
Civilization. A Lecture delivered be- 
fore the Brooklyn Revenue-Reform 
Club and before" the Young Repub- 
licans of Philadelphia (1883), 

The President on a "Standard of 
Value" (1885). 

The Price of Silver and its Relations to 
the Wheat Competition of India 
(1885). 

The Results of the Resumption of Specie 
Payments in England, 1 819-18-. 3: A 
lesson and a warning to the j eople of 
the United States (l!- 74). Svo., 

The Rights of American Producer.^, 
and the Wrongs of Pritish Free-Trade 
Revenue Reform (1872). - 

The Silver Dollar, the Original Stand- 
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